
Class. 
Book 



A2. 



■'/ 






COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



SCHOOL HISTORY 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES 

OF 

AMERICA 



BY 

CHARLES MORRIS 

AUTHOR OP "HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES" (ADVANCED, ELEMENTARY, 

AND primary), "history OF THE WORLD," "HISTORICAL 

TALES OF THE NATIONS," ETC. 



ILLUSTRATED 




PHILADELPHIA 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 






Copyright, 1909, by J. B. Lippincott Companv. 



Copyright, 191 1, by J. B. Lippincott Company. 



Copyright, 1912, by J. B. Lippincott Company. 
Copyright, 1913, by J. B. Lippincott Company. 



Copyright, 1914, by J. B. Lippincott Companv. 
Copyright, igis.by J B. Lippincott Company 



Printed by J. B'. Lippincott Company 
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 



MAY 2^ 1915 

O)CIA401060 



PREFACE 

In response to an urgent demand for a text-book 
on United States History of convenient size and 
adapted to the needs of pupils in the seventh and 
eighth grades of elementary schools, this book has 
been written. 

It will be noticed that this history is somewhat 
smaller than others written for the same grades. This 
reduction in size has been accomplished, not by 
excluding any essential or important fact of history, 
but by the omission of unnecessary detail; and yet 
details have not been omitted to the extent of making 
the narrative dr}^ and uninteresting, The leading 
events of United States history are herein set forth in 
such manner as to show their relations and historical 
significance and to give a fair general idea of the 
causes and the results of the great issues which have 
affected the life and the government of the American 
people. 

In writing it several essential considerations have 
been closely attended to. Those include clearness and 
accuracy of statement, simplicity of language, and 
avoidance of partisan or sectional opinions, imparti- 
ality being made a leading requisite. This countrj'- 
has been the scene, not only of rapid progress in times 
of peace, but of several wars of great political signifi- 
cance. While seeking to point out the causes and 
consequences of these wars, their details have been 



IV PREFACE 

dealt with very briefly; it seeming unnecessary for the 
pupil to learn what took place on the various battle 
fields, while very necessary that the significance of 
these wars should be grasped and their effect upon the 
nation made evident. And this applies as well to 
many events not of a warlike nature, yet which had 
had their share in moulding the character and influ- 
encing the destiny of our people. 

The public conception of what constitutes true his- 
tory has greatly broadened within recent times. 
Formerly the doings of courts and kings and the 
details of battles and sieges were the leading consider- 
ations. Now the doings of the people are considered 
of equal, if not of greater, importance, and the social, 
ethical, pohtical, and other elements of human life and 
progress attract the chief attention of the historian. 

All this has been attended to here, with the object 
of producing a well-rounded work, in which the life of 
the American people should be considered from every 
point of view, and the student be given the oppor- 
tunity of gaining a definite general acquaintance with 
the career and character of his forefathers. It is 
hoped that this purpose has been to some satisfactory 
extent attained. 

The author is highly gratified to know that h"s 
humble efforts hitherto have been appreciated by the 
educational public, and in sending forth this new can- 
didate for popular favor he indulges the hope that it 
may be given a like cordial reception. 

Charles Morris. 

Philadelphia, July 30, 1909. 



CONTENTS 



PART I 

THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 

PAGE 

1. How America was Found 1 

2. Later Voyages of Disco\t:ry 13 

3. The Natives of America 19 

PART II 
THE ERA OF EXPLORATION 

i. The Spanish and French in the South 30 

2. The French in the North and West 37 

3. The English and Dutch in the East 43 

4. The Claims of the Nations 47 

PART III 
THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 

1. The Places and Dates of Colonies 52 

2. Virginia 55 

3. New England and its Colonies 72 

Plymouth 72 

Massachusetts Bay Colony 78 

Maine and New Hampshire 86 

Rhode Island 87 

Connecticut 90 

The New England Union 94 

4. New York and New Jersey 98 

New Netherland 98 

New York 103 

New Jersey 105 

5. Pennsylvania and Delaware 107 

6. Maryland 113 

7. Carolina and Georgia 117 

V 



vi TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PART IV 
THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 

L King William's War 126 

2. Queen Anne's War 128 

3. King George's War 129 

4. The French and Indian War 131 

5. Life in Colonial Times 149 

PAET V 

THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 

1. The Causes of Discontent in the Colonies 166 

2. The Colonies in Rebellion- 178 

3. The War for Independence ISO 

4. The War in the South 206 

PAET VI 
THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 

1. The Country and the People 215 

2. From Confederation to Constitution 220 

3. Washington's Administration 230 

4. John Adams's Administration 238 

5. Jefferson's Administration 242 

6. iVlADisfiN's Administration 251 

7. The Second War with Great Britain 2i)5 

PART VII 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 

1. iMoNROES Administration 269 

2. John Quincy Adams's Administration 278 

3. Jackson's Administration 282 

4. Van Burens Administration 289 

5. The Harrison and Tyler Administration 292 

6. Polk's Administration 299 



TABLE OF CONTENTS Vll 

PART VIII 

A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY 

1. Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations 307 

2. Pierce's Administration 313 

3- Buchanan's Administration 318 



PART IX 

THE CIVIL WAR 

1. Lincoln's Administration 326 

2. The West in 1862 335 

3. The East in 1862 342 

4. The Campaigns of 1863 348 

5. The Final Campaigns of the War 354 

6. The Country During the War 367 



PART X 

PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION 

1. Johnson's Administration 371 

2. Grant's Administration 377 

3. Hayes's Administration 384 

4. The Garfield and Arthur Administration 387 

5. Cleveland's Administration 391 

6. Benjamin Harrison's Administration 393 

7. Cleveland's Second Administration 397 

8. McKinley's Administration 401 



PART XI 

THE UNITED STATES IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

1. Roosevelt's Administration 411 

2. Taft's Administration 420 



viil TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PART XII 
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 

1. Territorial Growth of the United States 426 

2. Population and Slavery 428 

3. Political Parties 432 

4. Transportation and News-sending 434 

5. Industrial Development 437 

6. Inventors and Their Inventions 440 

7. Famous Authors of America 444 

General Review 449 

The Declaration of Independence i 

The Constitution of the United States vi 

Table of States and Territories xxiv 

Table of the Presidents xxv 

Pronouncing Vocabulary xxvi 

Index i xxvii 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

Reading the Declaration of Independence Frontispiece 

A ship of the Northmen 2 

Reproduction of Viking stone carvings 5 

An Eastern caravan 6 

Instrument used by Columbus in determining solar altitudes. ... 8 

A ship of the I5th century 10 

The landing of Columbus 12 

Columbus before the Court of Ferdinand and Isabella 14 

A native American 19 

Indian girl weaving blanket 21 

An Indian wigwam 22 

A wampum peace belt 23 

Indian snow-shoe 24 

Building a birch-bark canoe 25 

Pottery from Mound-builder's grave 27 

Ruins of the Cliff-dwellers' homes 2»S 

De Leon fighting the natives of Florida 31 

De Soto discovering the Mississippi 33 

Huguenot Bible 35 

The oldest house in St. Augustine 36 

Battle with the Iroquois Indians 41 

Sir Walter Raleigh 45 

The landing of Hendrick Hudson 46 

The Half Moon 47 

Seal of the London Company 53 

Landing at Jamestown 55 

John Smith on his return journey to Jamestown 57 

Tobacco proclamation of James 1 60 

The marriage of Pocahontas 61 

Hall of Shirley house, Virginia 67 

Quarrel between Bacon and Berkeley 69 

Old tower at Jamestowm 70 

On board the Mayflower 73 

Sword, pot, and platter of Miles Standish 75 

ix 



X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

March of Miles Standish 70 

John \Yinthrop 79 

Persecution of the Quakers 82 

The witch house, Salem 83 

Old Harvard College 84 

Old fort of the Puritans 85 

Roger Williams sheltered by the Narragansetts 88 

Attack on the Pequot stronghold 93 

The Charter Oak 96 

New Amsterdam 100 

New Amsterdam about 1G67 102 

Peter Stuyvesant considering summons to surrender New York. . 103 

Interior of Old Swedes Church, Phila 107 

Penn's vision of a land of freedom 108 

Penn's landing at Essex House, Chester llO 

Treaty Elm on the Delaware Ill 

Letitia House, Philadelphia 112 

Five-mile stone marking Mason and Dixon line 110 

James E. Oglethorpe 122 

The attack on Haverhill 127 

Copy of penmanship by which Washington's handwriting was 

formed 134 

Washington presenting Gov. Dinwiddle's letter to Chevalier Le- 

gardeur de St. Pierre, 1753 136 

Washington crossing the Alleghany River on raft 137 

Benjamin Franklin 138 

Braddock's march 139 

The Heights of Abraham 144 

Death of General Wolfe 145 

Old block house 146 

Conestoga wagon 149 

A Colonial stage coach 150 

Fireman's hat 152 

Fire bucket of 1820 153 

William Penn's writing desk 154 

Costumes of the Pilgrims 155 

A Colonial dress of 1760 1 56 

Old grist mill and water power wheel 157 

Some of Benjamin Franklin's china 158 

Old spinning wheel 158 

A hackle 159 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Xl 

Steel, flint, tinder box and sulphur matches 160 

A Colonial church 161 

A foot-stove 162 

Pine-tree shilling 163 

A stamp-act stamp 169 

Patrick Henry addressing the Virginia Assembly 170 

The Boston massacre 171 

Faneuil Hall 173 

The Boston tea-party 174 

First prayer in the Continental Congress 177 

Paul Revere's ride 179 

Tlie battle of Lexington 180 

Line of the minute-men at Lexington, M .s? 181 

Concord Bridge 182 

Ruins of Fort Ticonderoga 183 

A drum used at Bunker Hill 185 

A Hessian helmet 186 

The committee on the Declaration 188 

Washington crossing the Delaware 193 

The spirit of '76 194 

Chew house, Germantown 196 

Winter quarters at Valley Forge 200 

Benjamin Franklin at the Court of France 201 

John Paul Jones 204 

Siege of Charleston 207 

General Marion and British officer 203 

Cornwallis's headquarters at Yorktown 210 

Surrender of Cornwallis 212 

One of Robert Morris's ox teams transporting money 216 

Pine-tree lantern 219 

Continental paper money 221 

Washington and Lafayette at Mount Vernon 222 

Interior of Independence Hall 226 

Patrick Henry 228 

George Washington 230 

Washington delivering his inaugural address in New York.... 231 

A reception by Lady Washington 234 

Indian warfare on the frontier 236 

John Adams 239 

Fighting the French 240 

Thomas Jefferson 243 



xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Stephen Decatur 244 

Signing the contract for the purchase of Louisiana 246 

An Ohio flat-boat 248 

John Fitch's steam-boat 249 

Robert Fulton's steam-boat Clermont 250 

James Madison 252 

Battle of Tippecanoe 254 

The perils of the wilderness 256 

The Constitution and Guerriere 258 

Perry on Lake Erie 261 

Battle of New Orleans 265 

James Monroe 269 

Henry Clay 273 

Transportation by canal-boat 275 

John Quincy Adams 278 

John C. Calhoun 279 

Andrew Jackson 282 

Daniel Webster 283 

Daniel Webster addressing the U. S. Senate 284 

The Capitol at Washington in 1831 285 

Westward the course of empire takes its way 288 

Martin Van Buren 289 

William Henry Harrison 292 

John Tyler 293 

Residence of President Houston of Texas, 1836 294 

The Alamo 295 

James K. Polk 300 

Battle of Buena Vista 302 

Battle of Chapultepec 303 

San Francisco about 1835 305 

Zachary Taylor 308 

Henry Clay's speech in the Senate in 1850 309 

Millard Fillmore 311 

Franklin Pierce 313 

Commodore Perry meeting the commissioners at Yokohama 316 

James Buchanan 318 

John Brown's fort at Harper's Ferry 319 

Laying the Atlantic cable 321 

Jefferson Davis 324 

Abraham Lincoln 326 

A battery directed against Fort Sumter 327 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii 

Harper's Ferry, West Virginia 328 

Cotton picking 330 

George B. IMeClellan 332 

The Monitor and the Merrimac 334 

Gun and mortar boats on the Mississippi ,. 337 

Farragiit's fleet passing the forts on the Mississippi 340 

Robert E. Lee 343 

Battle of Antietam 346 

Signing the Emancipation Prochimation 348 

Battleof Gettysburg 351 

Battle of Lookout Mountain 354 

William T. Sherman 358 

Sherman's march to the sea 361 

Farragut commanding his flagship in action 362 

The Alabama and Kearsarge 363 

The surrender of General Robert E. Le? 365 

Andrew Johnson 372 

Ulysses S. Grant 378 

Medal issued by Congress upon completion of the Union Pacific 

Railroad 378 

Custer's fight with the Sioux Indians 381 

Rutherford B. Hayes 384 

James A. Garfield 387 

Chester A. Arthur 388 

The Washington monument 389 

Grover Cleveland 391 

Benjamin Harrison 393 

The Johnstown flood 394 

A native Hawaiian hut 399 

W^illiam McKinley 401 

Street scene in Dawson City on the Yukon 402 

The annihilation of the Spanish fleet in the harbor of Manila . . 404 

The naval battle at Santiago 406 

Theodore Roosevelt 411 

Steam shovel at work on the Panama canal 413 

Ruins of the City Hall, San Francisco 416 

Opening an irrigation dam, Truckee River, Nevada 418 

William H. Taft 420 

Manufacturers' building, Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exhibition, 

Seattle 421 



LIST OF MAPS 



Early French settlements in Canada 39 

Virginia. Territory claimed by the English 49 

New France. Territory claimed by the French 49 

Florida. Territory claimed by the Spanish 49 

New Netherland. Territory claimed by the Dutch 49 

The middle colonies 59 

New England and New Netherland 97 

Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware 109 

The Carolinas and Georgia 120 

French settlements in the West and South 131 

Colonial territory before the French and Indian War 132 

The Fort Duquesne campaign 140 

The seat of the war in New York 141 

The siege of Quebec 143 

Colonial territory after the French and Indian War 148 

Boston and vicinity 184 

The New Jersey campaign 192 

Burgoyne's route 197 

Siege of Yorktown 211 

Battle-fields on the Niagara 255 

Northern battle-fields of the war of 1812-15 262 

New Orleans and the Creek War 264 

Scott's campaign 301 

Battle-fields of Kentucky and Tennessee 328 

McClellan's Campaign, Yoi'ktown to Richmond 342 

Battle-fields of Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania 345 

Plan of the battle of Gettysburg 350 

Grant's Vicksburg campaign 352 

Grant's campaign, Wilderness to Petersburg 356 

Sherman's march, Atlanta to Raleigh 359 

Railway and canal from Panama to Colon 414 



SCHOOL HISTORY 

OF THE 

United States 



PART I. 

THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 



1. HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND ■ 

1. An Age of Ignorance. — The country we live in is 
one of the late discoveries of mankind. Men lived 
upon the earth for thousands of years, and made 
much progress in civilization, before the most learned 
of scholars knew one-tenth as much about the surface 
of the earth as a school-boy does to-day. In fact, 
in the time of Columbus, a little more than four hun- 
dred years ago, much had been forgotten that was 
known by the people of ancient Greece and Rome, 
and a state of great ignorance about geography 
prevailed. 

2. Barbarism Replaces Civilization. — For many cen- 
turies after the fall of the great Roman empire, and 
the conquest of Southern Europe b}'' the wild tribes 
of the north, the old civilization ceased to exist, and a 
state of barbarism took its place. There was no 
science, there was little learning, commerce and enter- 
prise were wanting, ignorance and superstition spread 

1 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 



everywhere. Wars were very common, poverty and 
oppression were equally common, and it was not 
until about the fifteenth century that the people of 
Europe showed a desire to learn something more 
about the earth upon which they lived. 

3. Lack of Knowledge of Geography. — In the days 
here spoken of there was in Europe a fair general 
idea of the geography of that continent, and some- 
thing was known about Southern and Eastern Asia 
and Northern Africa, though not half as much as had 
been known by the Greeks and Romans a thousand 
years before. But beyond this the map of the world 
was a blank, and no one so much as dreamed that a 

^ . . , . great double continent 

lay in the western seas. 
As for the vast oceans 
which are now the 
highways of com- 
merce, no ship had 
ever sailed upon them, 
no mariner knew how 
far and wide they 
stretched. 

4. The Voyages of the 
Northmen. — Just here, 

A Ship of the Northmen. llOWCVer, there Is a talo 

to tell. We have been 
speaking of the nations of Southern Europe, the seat of 
what learning tiien existed. In the far north, the realm 
of Scandinavia, now known as Norway, Sweden, and 
Denmark, there was a race of bold sea-rovers who, 
in their small open vessels, moved by oars as well as 




874] HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND 3 

sails, did not hesitate to venture far upon the unknown 
sea. The people of the south knew them only as 
ferocious pirates, who landed upon their coasts and 
burned, slew, and plundered in all directions. But 
the men of the north were not only sea-robbers, they 
were explorers as well, and to them we owe the first 
discovery of America. 

5. Iceland and Greenland. — Sailing boldly outward, 
without compass, yet without fear, and daring the 
wildest tempests of the seas, they did not hesitate to 
go far from land, and one of their vessels that was 
caught in a storm was driven far to the northwest, 
finding harbor at length on a large island, which they 
named Iceland from its frozen aspect. They made 
a settlement on this island in 874, and their ships 
frequently visited it. From here the Vikings, as 
these fearless navigators were called, ventured still 
farther west, and in time reached another island shore. 
This was also a land of ice, but just then it was in its 
summer verdure, and they named it Greenland. A 
settlement was made on its shores in 986, and the 
descendants of the settlers lived there for about five 
hundred years, abandoning it about the time of the 
voyage of Columbus. The present Danish settlements 
were founded in 1721. 

6. The Northmen Reach America. — The rovers of the 
north had now got close to America, and, as many 
of their ships sailed to and from Iceland and Green- 
land, they were likely soon to reach the mainland of 
the continent. As in the discovery of Iceland, a 
storm again blew a vessel from its course and its 
crew saw land far to the south. On reaching Green- 



4 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY [1000 

land, they told the story of what they had seen, and 
Lcif, a son of Eric the Red, the discoverer of Green- 
land, grew eager to visit this new shore. It was in 
the year 1000 A.D. that he set sail, and, after seeing 
land at several points, at length landed at a place 
he called Vinland (vine-land), from the fact that 
wild grapes grew there in abundance. How far south 
this was we do not know. It may have been on the 
New England coast or it may have been farther 
north, for no undoubted relics of the visit of the 
Northmen have been found. 

7. The Story of Vinland. — The Northmen made vari- 
ous visits to Vinland, but they did not form a 
colony there, as they had done in Greenland. A 
settlement was made, but it was little more than a 
lumber camp, to cut wood and send it north. It 
finally broke up in a quarrel, in which many of the 
settlers were killed, while the remainder took to their 
ships and made their way back to Greenland. After 
that only a few voyages to Vinland were made. The 
natives of the new country were hostile and it was a 
dangerous place in wdiich to live. 

8. The Memory of Vinland Lost. — It may be seen 
from this that the honor of first discovering America 
belongs to the Northmen. But they had found it 
by chance, and in time forgot all about it. The story 
of their discovery was never told in the south. Several 
accounts of it were written in Iceland, where the 
peojjlc were much given to literary work, but the 
manuscripts remained in that island and were not 
known elsewhere. Those manuscripts, which tell us 
much about the country, reached the hands of 



1295J HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND 5 

geographers only in recent times. Thus it was that 
the discovery of the Northmen failed to become 
known, and America remained to be discovered over 
again, this time not by accident, but as a result of 
set purpose and scientific study and deduction. 







Tr41^^^#^ 



vy> 



Reproduction of Viking Stone Carvings. 



9. Europe in the Fifteenth Century. — At the opening 
of the fifteenth century the state of affairs in Europe 
had much improved. Peaceful enterprise was begin- 
ning to take the place of warlike turmoil, and a desire 
to know more about the earth on which they lived 
was rising in the minds of men. Something had been 
learned of Asia by aid of overland commerce to Persia 
and India, and travellers had visited that continent, 
chief among them being a man named Marco Polo, 
who dwelt many years in China, returning to Europe 
in 1295. The story he told added much to the in- 
terest felt in the distant realms of the earth. 

10. Commerce with the East. — The commerce in the 
pearls and spices, shawls, silks, and muslins of the 
East was prosecuted by caravans to the eastern ports 
of the Mediterranean and thence by the ships of 
Venice, Genoa, and other seaports to European cities. 



6 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 



[1418-97 



But the coaquest of Western Asia by the Turks at this 
period put a stop to this valued commerce, and Europe 
lost the luxuries to which it had long been accustomed. 
If these treasured products were to be enjoyed some 
new route of travel needed to be discovered. 




An Eastern Caravan. 

11. Portuguese Enterprise. — About this time the little 
kingdom of Portugal was showing much activity 
in ocean navigation. Thinking that Asia might be 
reached by sailing around Africa, Prince Henry began 
sending ships down its coast in 1418. Madeira, the 
Azores, and other islands were discovered, but pro- 
gress was slow, and it was not until 1471 that the 
equator was reached. In 1481 Bartholomew Diaz 
discovered the southern cape, known as the Cape of 
Good Hope, and in 1497 Vasco da Gama rounded 
this cape and reached the coast of India. He returned 
in 1499 with a cargo of the rich Indian products. 



1435] HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND 7 

12. Christopher Columbus. — Among the daring mari- 
ners who took part in the Portuguese voyages 
was an ItaUan named Christopher Columbus. Born 
in Genoa about 1435, he took to the sea at the age of 
fourteen. For years afterwards he was actively 
engaged in commerce and adventure, taking part in 
several of the Portuguese expeditions to the south, and 
sailing north probably to and beyond Iceland. Such 
was the experience as a sailor of the man who was 
to become the great leader in geographical discovery. 

13. The Shape of the Earth. — Was the earth round 
or flat? This was an open question at that day. Such 
ancient writers as Aristotle and Ptolemy, scientists 
of the far past, had held that the earth was round, 
and the best geographers of the fifteenth century, 
Columbus among them, accepted that belief. But 
this was not the case with the ignorant multitude or 
with many men who thought themselves learned. 
They believed the earth to be flat, and predicted 
dire disasters to any one who ventured too far from 
land. Thus they looked upon the torrid zone as a 
region of fire, where the very waters boiled. In addi- 
tion to this their fears conjured up further terrors, 
such as impenetrable fogs, frightful sea-monsters, and 
other horrors beyond the powers of fancy, which awaited 
those who should venture upon the ocean wastes.^ 

^ The learned Spanish council before which Columbus laid his 
plans ridiculed him as the victim of a wild fancy. " Do you mean to 
tell us," they asked, "that on the other side of the earth the rain 
falls upward and men walk with their heads downward? If the 
earth were round, as you say, your ships, in going west, would sail 
down a cur\-ed surface, and would have to sail up hill to return to 
Spain. " This objection may seem absurd to us, but it was not so in 
that day, when nothing was known of the principle of gravitation. 



8 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 



14. The Theory of Columbus. — Columbus not only 
believed the earth to be round, but he was quite 
willing to test his belief, in a way no one else thought 
of doing, by sailing over the open ocean to the west, 
with the hope that he might reach far-off Asia b}^ this 
route. He did not dream that any land la}^ between 
Europe and Asia, was ignorant of the real size of the 
earth, and imagined that a voyage of about four 
thousand miles would bring him. to the island kingdom 
of Cipango — the modern Japan — of which Marco 

Polo had spoken. Columbus had 
other than scientific reasons for 
his belief. He had visited the 
island of Madeira and been told 
there of strange objects thrown 
ashore by the sea. These were 
pieces of carved wood, strange 
plants and seeds, canes long 
enough to hold four quarts of 
wine between their joints, and 
even the bodies of two men un- 
like any of the people of Europe 
in face and color. Wostei'ly winds had brought these, 
and it was a just conclusion from this that thoy came 
from lands in the west. 

15. Columbus Seeks Aid.— As has been said, Colum- 
bus was not alone in his belief in the roundness of the 
earth, but he was the first who had the daring to put 
his theory to the test. He was far too poor to under- 
take such a voyage at his own expense, and sought 
aid from the more enterprising nations. His first 
effort was with the authorities of his native city of 




Kind of Instrument used 
BY Columbus in determining 
Solar Altitudes, 



14S4] HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND 9 

Genoa, but they rejected his scheme as the product 
of folly. Then he sought Portugal, where he spent 
years in vain persuasion. King John, partly con- 
vinced by his arguments, but not willing to give 
him the reward he asked in case of success, secretly 
sent out a vessel to the west, but in a few days the 
captain returned, scared by stormy winds and what 
seemed to him an endless waste of heaving waters. 

16. At the Court of Spain. — Incensed by the treachery 
of the Portuguese king, Columbus in 1484 sought 
Spain, then under the rule of King Ferdinand and 
Queen Isabella, and for seven years begged their aid 
in his enterprise. At length, despairing of help, he 
determined to seek France. But he was reduced to 
such straits that he had to stop and beg bread for 
himself and his little son at the convent of La Rabida, 
near the town of Palos. 

17. Aid from Queen Isabella. — Fortune now turned 
in his favor. The prior of the convent, whom he had 
convinced of the correctness of his theory, wrote to 
Queen Isabella in his favor, and after some persuasion 
she was not only brought to believe in his plan, but 
even offered to pledge her jewels to raise the money 
needed. Cash was just then not abundant at the court 
of Spain, which for years had been engaged in a 
costly war with the Moors of Granada. Fortunately 
for the queen, she did not need to pledge her jewels, 
money enough being found in the treasury. Columbus 
was to raise a part of the sum needed, and this was 
advanced him by some friends at Palos. The vessels 
were purchased; food, water, and other needful 
material were obtained; and the crews were enlisted — 



10 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 



[1492 




A Ship of the 15th Century. 



this being a very difficult part of the task, for the 
ignorant and superstitious sailors of that day were 
terrified at the thought of such a voyage. 

18. The Voyage Begun.— When, on the 3d of August, 
1492, the three small vessels provided— the Santa 
Maria, Pinta, and Nifia— set sail, there were on board 

one hundred and twenty 
men in all, in addition to 
the Admiral, which title 
Columbus bore. Of these, 
ninety formed the crews, 
the others being priests 
and gentlemen of adven- 
turous disposition, men 
ready for any daring 
enterprise. Sailing first to 
the Canary Islands, where it was necessary to stop and 
repair one of the vessels which had been injured, on the 
6th of September the three little craft headed due west 
and vanished from sight in the ''Sea of Darkness," 
as many then named the Atlantic Ocean. 

19. The Terrors of the Voyage.— The voyage of Colum- 
bus was one of the most interesting in the world's 
history, but it must be dealt with here very 
briefly. The boiling seas, the black fogs, the frightful 
monsters predicted were not met, yet terrors assailed 
the souls of the crew. The compass ceased to point 
due north and they feared that this faithful friend 
was about to fail them. They entered what is known 
as the Sargasso Sea, where there are vast tracts of 
floating seaweed. Here the dread was of great shal- 
lows, where the vessels might be wrecked on hidden 



1492] HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND 11 

sand-bars or plunge into banks of clinging mud. 
Signs of land appeared, but they proved deceptive. 
Columbus deceived the crew as to the distance they 
had gone, hoping thus to allay their fears, yet as day 
after day passed without sight of land some of the 
men became mutinous and plotted to throw their 
Admiral overboard and return to Spain. The terrors 
of the sea had thoroughly frightened them. 

20. Land is Seen. — Through all this Columbus main- 
tained hope and serenity, and as signs of land grew 
more frequent his hopes began to be shared by the 
crew. The eventful day came on the 12th of October, 
seventy days after they had left Palos. At ten o'clock 
on the evening of the 11th a light had been seen, 
which moved as if carried, and at two in the morning 
the joyful cry of ''Land!" came from the leading 
vessel. A sailor had seen signs of land in the moonlit 
distance. There was no more sleep on board for the 
remainder of that night. When day dawned all hearts 
beat high with joy when their eyes fell on a low, green 
shore, that looked to them a very paradise. The great- 
est of voyages was ended; the greatest of discoveries 
was made ! 

2L On San Salvador. — It was an island which had been 
reached, one of the Bahamas. Which of these it was 
no one is sure, but it was probably the one now called 
Watling's Island. Columbus named it San Salvador. 
He landed on it in the early morning of October 12, 
1492, clad in armor and wearing a cloak of scarlet, 
embroidered with gold, while in his hand he bore the 
royal banner of Spain. Kneeling on the shore, he 
kissed the soil, his eyes wet with tears of joy, while 



12 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 



[1492 



those of his crew who had plotted his death fell weeping 
before him and humbly begged forgiveness. Rising, 
he took possession of the new land in the name of the 
Spanish monarchs. The island was inhabited by a 
people of reddish complexion, unlike any he had ever 
seen before. They seemed a gentle people, who looked 
on their visitors with utter astonishment. To their 




The Landing of Columbus. 

simple fancy the whites came from the realm of the 
gods and their shij^s were great white-winged birds. 

22. The End of the Voyage; what Columbus Believed. — 
From San Salvador a southward route was followed. 
Other islands, clad in summer verdure, appeared, 
and soon the great island of Cuba was reached. From 
this they sailed to another large and fertile island, 
which they named Hispaniola — the modern Hayti. 
Here the Santa Maria, the flagship of the expedition. 



1493] HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND 13 

was wrecked, leaving only the two smaller vessels for 
their return. A fort was built from the timbers of the 
wrecked ship, a colony left in it, arid with the remain- 
ing vessels Columbus set sail for home, in the full 
belief that he had reached the shores of distant Asia. 
Supposing Cuba to be the mainland of India, he called 
the people Indians, a misleading title which has ever 
since clung to them. When the day of his death came 
he was still in the full belief that it was Asia to which 
he had come, and he never learned the full magnitude 
of his discovery. 

23. The Return of Columbus.— On the 15th of March, 
1493, the people of Palos were filled with surprise and 
joy to see slipping into their harbor the Pinta and 
Niiia, with the adventurers who had long been mourned 
as lost. The news of the great discovery spread with 
marvellous rapidity and w^as everywhere received 
with acclamations. Columbus had proved what 
before was only a theory, that the earth is round, 
and took rank among the greatest of discoverers and 
thinkers. His journey to the king's court at Barce- 
lona was like a triumph. The crowds exulted, the bells 
were rung, and the monarchs received him as almost 
their equal. * The natives and products of the new 
world brought wdth him were looked upon with deep 
interest and admiration. In the end the king and 
queen fell upon their knees and thanked God for the 
honor which had been vouchsafed to Spain. 

24. Honors to the Discoverer. — Never did discoverer 
receive greater honors. Columbus, who had wandered 
through Spain almost as a beggar, now rode at the 
king's side, with the title of Don and the distinction 



14 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 



ri498 



of a grandee of that proud kingdom. At sea he was 
an admiral; in the new world he was the king's viceroy, 
and was to receive a tenth of all the gold and other 
treasures the new land might yield, and an eighth 
of all the profits arising from trade. No discoverer 
had ever more reason to be proud and happy, for all 
Europe was filled with the story of his exploits. 




Coi.T'MBrS BEFORE THE CoURT OF FeRDIXAND AND ISABELLA. 



25. Later Life of Columbus. — Columbus made three 
more voyages. In the second he discovered many 
more islands; in the third, in 1498, he reached the 
coast of South America at the mouth of the Orinoco; 
in the fourth, in 1502, he coasted along the shores of 
Honduras in North America. But in some respects 
he showed faults of character and he made many 
enemies. He offended the king and queen by sending 
five shiploads of the natives to Spain to be sold as 
slaves. Finally he lost his office of viceroy and was 
sent home from Hispaniola in chains. This act of a 



1496-98] LATER VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY 15 

new governor the king disavowed, but Columbus 
sank in public esteem, his former admirers treated 
him with neglect, and he died in 1506 forsaken and 
alone, the victim of an ungrateful king and people. 



2. LATER VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY 

26. New Enterprises. — Columbus had shown the way; 
it was easy for others to follow. The news of his great 
voyage spread through Europe and everywhere roused 
interest and curiosity. Though as yet there was no 
thought that a new continent had been discovered, 
many were eager to embark on the western route to 
what was supposed to be the coast of Asia, some 
hoping for glory, some for gain. 

27. North America Discovered. — One of the most 
famous of those who followed Columbus sailed from 
England. Like Columbus, he was an Italian by birth, 
though then living in Bristol, England. John Cabot 
was his name. In 1496 he proposed to Henry VII., 
the king, to visit the new-discovered countrj^, and in 
May, 1497, with one ship and a few men, he set sail. 
As Spain had found and claimed the south he directed 
his course to the north, hoping to reach India or China 
by that route. On the 24th of June Cabot saw land. 
Just where it was we are not sure. It may have been 
Labrador or may have been some coast farther south, 
such as Cape Breton Island, but however that be, he 
won the honor of being the first to see the American 
continent, which was not reached by Columbus until 
the following year. In 1498 his young son Sebastian, 
who had probably been with him on this voyage, 



16 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY [1498 

sailed for America with several ships, and traced the 
coast from the region of icebergs as far south as Cape 
Hatteras, or possibly farther still. All the land dis- 
covered he claimed for Henry VII. of England, and 
on this claim the later settlements of England were 
based. 

28. Honor to the Cabots. — Little profit came to the 
Cabots from their discovery, but they gained much 
honor from the people, who hailed John as "The 
Great Admiral," and his son as ''The Great Seaman." 
The latter tells us of seeing savages dressed in skins, 
stags of great size, bears that caught fish with their 
claws, and such multitudes of codfish that the ships 
were checked in their speed by the crowding fish. 
These waters have ever since been a great codfishing 
region. Sebastian afterwards made an important voy- 
age of discovery in the service of Spain. 

29. The Line of Demarcation. — Two years after the 
voyage of Columbus, Spain and Portugal began to 
quarrel about their rights of discovery. Portuguese 
ships had reached the Azores and the Cape Verde 
Islands, west of the African coast, and the king desired 
the privilege of making further explorations in the 
west. Decision on this mooted point was left to Pope 
Alexander VI., who drew on the map a meridian line 
three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape 
Verde Islands, declaring that all heathen lands lying 
east of this line should belong to Portugal, all west 
of it to Spain. As it chanced, this line ran through 
the eastern part of the later discovered Brazil, and it 
was due to this that Portugal fell heir lo Brazil, while 



1500J LATER VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY 17 

all the rest of South America was taken possession of 
by Spain. The line of demarcation also gave North 
America to Spain, but England and France, in later 
years, paid no heed to the Pope's decision. 

30. The Discovery of Brazil. — Portugal had a further 
claim to Brazil, since this country was first discovered 
by a Portuguese mariner. In fact, if Columbus had 
not discovered America when he did, chance might 
have given the honor to Cabral, a captain in the service 
of Portugal. While on his way to India with a fleet 
in 1500 Cabral sailed far to the west, and high winds 
drove him so far out of his course that the coast of 
Brazil came within view. This lay east of the Pope's 
'^ine of demarcation" and Cabral therefore claimed 
it for Portugal and sent one of his ships home with 
the news of his discovery. In the following year an 
Italian mariner named Amerigo Vespucci, who had 
already crossed the ocean in the service of Spain, was 
engaged by the king of Portugal to explore this coast. 
He traced it southward for about eighteen hundred 
miles, reaching and entering the mouth of the Rio cle 
la Plata. This voyage is of interest for two reasons. 
It led to the possession of Brazil by Portugal and also 
to the naming of America. 

31. How America was Named. — It was in this way 
that America received its name: — Vespucci wrote a 
report of his voyage which was read with great interest 
in Europe. Published in 1504, it was made use of in 
1507 by a German geographer named Martin Waldsee- 
miiller, in a little book called ''An Introduction to 
Geography." In this he said: ''And the fourth part of 



18 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY [1513-19 

the worlcP having been discovered by Amerigo or Ameri- 
cus, we may call it Amerige or America." And by the 
latter name the entire continent has since been called. 
32. Balboa and Magellan. — Two more great discoveries 
need to be mentioned. One of these was made by 
Balboa, a Spanish adventurer, who crossed the Isthmus 
of Panama in 1513 and was the first to gaze on the 
great ocean which lay beyond. This vast expanse of 
water, now known as the Pacific Ocean, he named 
the South Sea. Wading into its waters with sword 
and banner in hand, he claimed it and all its bordering 
countries for the king of Spain. He was thus the 
first to prove that America is a continent distinct 
from Asia. This was more fully proved in 1519, when 
Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese in command of a 
Spanish fleet, sailed through the strait which bears 
his name and across the vast ocean beyond to the 
Philippine Islands. Here he was killed, but one of 
his ships returned to Spain by way of the Cape of 
Good Hope, thus completing the circumnavigation of 
the globe. In this way, for the first time, man learned 
the true dimensions of the earth on which he lived. 

> This needs some explanatipn. It had long been supposed that 
the world consisted of four parts, three of which were Europe, 
Asia, and Africa. As the land discovered by Columbus was sup- 
posed to be Asia, it was thought that Vespucci had disco^•ered a 
continent south of Asia, the missing "fourth part of the world." 
Thus it was to this land, now known as Brazil, that the name 
America was first given. It was afterwards applied to all South 
America, and finally to North America as well. Thus, without 
any intention of depriving Columbus of the honor that of right 
belonged to him, the name America was given to the whole conti- 
nent. 



THE NATIVES OF AMERICA 



19 



3. THE NATIVES OF AMERICA 

33. The True Americans. — When Columbus landed on 
the island of San Salvador he saw there men and 
women whose features and reddish-colored skin dif- 
fered from those of an}'- people he had ever before 
seen. They were the natives of 
the New World, the true Ameri- 
cans — not Indians, as he called 
them, that is, not natives of 
India, as he supposed them to 
be. As the continent has been 
wrongly named, so has its people. 
In justice to its discoverer it 
should have been named Columbia 
and its people Columbians, but it 
has been shown above why this 
failed to be done. It is our pur- 
pose to say something about 
these people, the native inhabi- 
tants of the United States, who 
had been here for untold centuries 
before the whites came, and 
whose story is therefore part of 
that of the country with which 
we have to deal. But as we know very little about 
their earlier history, we can speak here only of their 
manners and customs. 

34. What the Whites Found. — When people from 
Europe first came to this country they found it very 
different from its present appearance. Instead of a vast 
open country, covered with roads and farms an;l with 




A Nativk Amkrican. 



20 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 

cities and towns at close intervals, what they saw was 
a mighty forest, containing multitudes of deer and 
smaller animals, and inhabited by a race of hunters 
whom they called red-men, from the color of their 
skins. In place of roads there were only the trails or 
paths which these hunters made in their forest journeys; 
in place of towns only villages of rude huts or wig- 
wams; in place of farms only small fields of Indian- 
corn or beans. There were no horses, cows, or sheep; 
no carriages, carts, or railway trains; no mines or 
workshops; all was in a state of nature, and destitute 
of what we call the industries and arts of civilization. 
35. The Savage and Barbarous Indians. — These people 
are usually called savages, which word means the very 
lowest of men, those who live solely by hunting, who 
know nothing of agriculture, and have only the simplest 
kind of government, when they have any at all. There 
were people of this kind in North America, but they 
were found only west of the Rocky Mountains or in 
the far north. Those found in the eastern part of the 
country were in what is called the barbarous state, 
that which lies between the civilized and the savage. 
They tilled the fields to some extent, they dwelt in 
villages and had some simple industries, and they 
were organized into tribes and clans and had certain 
forms of government. Far south, in Mexico and Peru, 
were nations with many of the arts of civilization, and 
in the southwestern part of the United States were 
others with a few of those arts. These were the 
Pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Arizona, where 
their descendants still live and retain many of their 
old customs. 



THE NATIVES OF AMERICA 



21 




36. The Work of Men and Women. — There was work 
to be done in an Indian village, work in building the 
wigwams, in planting and harvesting the crops, in 
attending to the duties of the household; but it was 
not done by the men, all work of this kind being left 
to the women. The men were hunters and warriors; 
they were ready to 
fight their enemies, to 
seek food in the forest 
or the rivers, to build 
their simple canoes; 
but they were too 
proud or too lazy to 
do any of the every- 
day labor of life. On 
the hunt or the war- 
path they were very 
expert. Their senses 

were acute and they could track their prey along a trail 
where a white man could not see the slightest mark. 
They had great boldness, caution, and endurance, were 
fond of war, and were very cruel to their foes. Their 
greatest honor lay in the scalps which they tore from 
the heads of the living or dead, and their greatest 
delight was in burning their prisoners to death, with 
every torture of which they could think. 

37. Indian Wigwams and Houses.— The Indian wig- 
wams spoken of were round huts made of upright poles, 
drawn together and fastened at the top. These were 
covered with the skins of deer or other animals, or 
with bark or woven mats. Fire was made in a clay 
or stone pit in the floor, and the smoke made its way 



Copyright 1'.I04, by Win. H. Rau. 

Indian Girl Weaving Blanket. 



22 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 

out through a hole in the roof. There were other kinds 
of dweUings. Those of the Iroquois tribes of New 
York were buildings several hundred feet long, covered 
with bark and divided by partitions into apartments, 
in which many families lived, sometimes from thirty 
to fifty in a single house. In parts of the south there 
were circular dwellings of this kind, the partitions 





Ax Indian Wic.wam. 



being made of mats running from the centre to the 
outer wall, thus making three-sided family apartments. 
The Mandan tribe of the upper Missouri also had 
round houses. These were covered with clay, which 
hardened in the sun and made them fire-proof. 

38. Farming and Other Tools. — In order to break the 
ground for planting, the only tool they had was the 
hoe, made of sharpened stone or bone fastened to a 
handle of wood. The plants grown by them were 
maize, pumpkins, beans, squashes, and other eatable 
vegetables. Tobacco was also grown, they being very 
fond of smoking this pungent weed. The Iroquois 
tribes had corn-fields and in later years apple and 



THE NATIVES OF AMERICA 



23 



peach orchards, and laid up for winter use stores of 
corn, beans, and squashes. As they had no iron, their 
tools were all made of stone, horn, bone, wood, or 
shell. In addition to hoes, they used stone axes and 
hammers, scrapers to prepare skins for use as clothing, 
needles of bone, wooden paddles for their canoes, 
and other implements of the same simple kind. Pipes 
for tobacco-smoking were made of a kind of soft stone, 
hollowed out at the bowl and with a hole pierced 
through the stem for the smoke to pass through. 

39. Weapons of War. — The weapons of the Indians 
were of the same simple kind. The principal one was 
the bow and arrow, sharp pieces of flint or other sub- 
stance being used for arrow points. They also used 
war-clubs of hard wood, tomahawks or hatchets of 
sharp-edged flint with wooden handles, and flint 
knives to cut the scalps from the heads of the dead or 
wounded. These native weapons were soon thrown 
aside when they became familiar with the iron weapons 
and the firearms of the whites, for which they eagerly 
traded their furs. Some of them thought that gun- 
powder was a sort of seed, and planted it in the ground 
with the hope that it would grow. 




A Wampum Peace Belt. 



40. Clothing. — In winter the Indians wore deerskin 
clothing, though some tribes wove a coarse cloth for 
this purpose. In summer very little clothing was 



24 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 



worn. Moccasins, or shoes made of buckskin, were 
worn on their feet. These were soft and pliable and 
enabled them to walk noiselessly. A showy feather 
head-dress was often worn, and beads made of sea- 
shells were used as ornaments. These w^ere called 
wampum and the natives used them as money. In 
times of war they painted their 
faces so as to look as ferocious as 
possible. 

41. Furniture and Cooking= Vessels. 
— The natives, as we have said, 
lived in a very simple manner. 
Most of their time was spent in 
the open air and very little furni- 
ture served them. For bedding 
they used mats or skins, but chairs 
and tables were unknown, the 
ground being used instead of these. 
Vessels of earthenware or soapstone 
were used for cooking, though some 
tribes had wooden vessels. These 
they filled with water and threw in 
hot stones till the water boiled. 
Then their food w^as dropped in to 
cook. Some of them even used willow baskets, so 
closely woven that they would hold water, for the 
same purpose. 

42. Travel. — The natives of America had no beasts 
of burden and were obliged to travel on foot. The 
horse and ox were not know^n in their country until 
they were brought by the whites. They had the 
bison or buffalo, but had never tried to tame it, and 




By courtesy of the Chicago 
& Northwestern K. R. Co. 

Indian Snow-Shoe. 



THE NATIVES OF AMERICA 



25 




Building a Birch-Bahk ("anoe. 



used it only for food. In winter, when the snows were 
deep, they travelled on snow-shoes, and in summer 
used their soft and noiseless moccasins. Wherever 
there was a river or lake the canoe was much employed. 
This was very light, its strong wooden frame being 
covered with flexible birch-bark, closely sewn and 
made water-tight with 
pitch. Some of the 
tribes had much larger 
canoes, made by 
hollowing out tree- 
trunks, and capable of 
holding a considerable 
number of persons. 

43. Number of Indians. — It might be imagined that 
this great country, which now holds more than eighty 
million people, was large enough to support a very 
large number of Indians. But people who live chiefly 
by hunting cannot be numerous, since it takes much 
more ground to find food for a hunter than it does for 
a farmer. It has been estimated that in the past times 
only a few hundred thousands lived in all the country 
east of the Mississippi River. 

44. Groups or Families. — The Indians were divided 
into several large groups or families, differing in 
language and in other ways. The warlike Iroquois 
group lived chiefly in New York. North and south 
of it, and extending westward to the Mississippi, 
was the great Algonquin group, and in the Gulf 
State region the Muskoki or Mobilian group. West 
of the Mississippi were the Dakota and other 
groups. 



26 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 

45. Tribal Organization. — The large groups were 
divided into tribes, often hostile to each other. In 
eastern Pennsylvania were the Delawares, of the 
Algonquin family. In central New York were the 
Mohawks, Senecas, etc., of the Iroquois family. Else- 
where were many other tribes. Each tribe was divided 
into smaller bodies or clans, which were known by the 
names of animals, such as Bear, Wolf, Turtle, etc. 
The animal after which the clan was named was held 
sacred by its members, who believed that they had 
descended from one of these animals, the spirit of 
which protected them. A sachem, or civil magistrate, 
was at the head of each clan, and a council of the 
sachems governed the tribe, settling all important 
questions. There were also many war chiefs, who had 
a voice in deciding questions of war. These were 
selected from the bravest warriors and elected to their 
positions, women as well as men voting in the elections. 

46. Religion. — In reading about the Indians we meet 
with much about the Great Spirit, the all-wise, good 
and powerful, and of the happy hunting-grounds to 
which the spirits of the brave would pass. But many 
think that this idea of the Great Spirit came to them 
from the priests of the white men and was not native 
to them. Their chief worship was of their dead ances- 
tors, but they also worshipped the sun, the winds, the 
lightning, etc. They looked on the lightning as a 
great snake, and to them the snake was sacred. Some 
of the southern tribes had temples dedicated to the 
sun, and kept in them a sacred fire, which was never 
allowed to go out, lest great misfortunes should come. 
The only priest was the medicine-man, who was 



THE NATIVES OF AMERICA 



27 




thought able to control evil spirits by magic rites. 
Dancing played a great part in their religious cere- 
monies, as well as in affairs of the harvest, war, etc. 

47. The Mound=Builders. — In many parts of the 
west and south are mounds of earth, some of them 
very large, built by the Indians of the past. Some 
of them represent men or animals, there being one in 
Ohio in the shape of a serpent which is one thousand 
feet long. Many of the smaller 
mounds have been found to 
contain relics, such as stone 
tools and weapons, water-jugs, 
kettles, carved pipes, and 
many other objects. Pieces 
of copper are found, and it is 
know^n that the Indians had 
mines of this metal near Lake 
Superior. It was long believed 
that the Mound-Builders were a separate race, of higher 
civilization, but it is now thought that they were the 
ancestors of the present Indians. The Indians of the 
south, when first known, had such mounds still in use, 
on which their temples and council-houses were built. 

48. The Pueblo Indians. — Something was said before 
about the Pueblo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico, 
and these are a very interesting people. They build 
large houses of flat stones or sun-dried bricks, known 
as ''pueblos," some of which are four or five stories 
high and large enough to hold a whole tribe, of 3,000 
or more people. Each story is smaller than the one 
below it, and the stories rise one above another like 
great steps. They have no doors or windows, being 



Pottery from a Mound- 
Builder's Grave. 



28 



THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 



entered from holes in the roof, which is reached by 
ladders. This is probably done as a protection against 
enemies, and some of their houses are built on the 
tops of high and steep hills, known as mesas, and very 
difficult to climb. 

49. Agriculture. — The Pueblo Indians raised large 
crops of Indian-corn, and as their country is one of 
little rain they learned to irrigate it, carrying the 
water of the rivers to their lands by means of ditches. 
They had no domestic animals, but their descendants, 
the Moquis and Zunis of to-day, keep flocks of sheep 
and other animals introduced by the whites. 




Ruins of the Cliff-Dwellers' Homes. 

50. The Clift=Dwellers. — Some of the natives of the 
southwest lived in crevices in the rocky sides of deep 
ravines, which could only be reached by a steep and 
difficult climb. Stone dwellings were built in these 
situations, some of which are now quite inaccessible. 
Food was probably grown in the ravines below, but 
these have now so little rain that no food can be grown 
there, and the Cliff-Dwellers have disappeared. 



SUMMARY OF EVENTS 29 



sum:mary of events. 

1000. About the year 1000 A.D. the daring seamen of Xorthern 
Europe, who had previously discovered Iceland and Greenland 
reached the continent of America at a place they named Mnland. 
After a few years their settlement here was abandoned and the 
story of it was gradually forgotten. 

1492. Christopher Columbus, with three small vessels, sailed 
from the port of Palos, Spain, August 3, 1492, with the hope of 
finding the continent of Asia by sailing westward across the ocean. 
What he accomplished was to find a new continent and prove that 
the earth is round. 

On October 12, 1492, Columbus reached land at one of the 
Bahama Islands. He discovered Cuba and other islands, and was 
highly honored on his return home yviih the story of his wonderful 
voyage. He made several other voyages and discovered the con- 
tinent of South America, but he lost favor with the king and queen 
of Spain, and the discoverer of a new world was permitted to die 
in neglect. 

1497. John and Sebastian Cabot sailed from England and dis- 
covered the North American continent about the latitude of Labra- 
dor. Sebastian on a second voyage sailed far down the coast, 
and this became the basis of England's claim to this part of the 
Xew World, as America was then called. 

1418-1.500. The Portuguese explored the coast of Africa and 
reached India by sailing around that continent. One of their ships 
reached Brazil in 1500. Brazil was explored by Amerigo Vespucci, 
and an account of this voyage, written by him, led to that region 
receiving the name of America. This name was afterwards given to 
the whole double continent, and the name of Columbus is now used 
for only a small part of it, the republic of Colombia, in South America. 

1513-1519. Balboa, a Spanish adventurer, crossed the Istlimus of 
Panama in 1513 and discovered a great ocean, which he named the 
South Sea. Magellan, a daring mariner, sailed around South America 
in 1519 and crossed this ocean, which he named the Pacific. One 
of his ships returned to Spain, after sailing around the earth. 

REFEREXCE BOOKS. 

1. FisiCs Discovery of America. 2. Irving' s Columbus. 3. Winsor's 
America. 4. Ellis's The Red Men and the White. 



PART II 

THE ERA OF EXPLORATION 



1. THE SPANISH AND FRENCH IN THE SOUTH 

51. The First Landing on United States Soil. — In the 

early discoveries no one landed on the shores of what 
is now the United States and no one saw those shores 
except Sebastian Cabot and his crew. It was in 1513, 
twenty-one years after the discovery of America by 
Columbus, that the foot of a white man was first set 
upon this great domain, though the Spaniards were 
already busy in making settlements and seeking gold 
farther to the south. 

52. The Fountain of Youth.— It was a strange idea that 
led the Spaniards to this northern region, the fable 
of a magical fountain, which would give perpetual 
youth to any one who di'ank from its waters. The 
old fable placed this living spring somewhere in 
Eastern Asia, but, as the Spaniards believed that 
it was Asia they had reached, it was natural for 
them to seek in the new land the wonderful Fountain 
of Youth. 

53. Florida Discovered and Named. — Among those who 
had faith in this magical fountain was a Spanish 
knight and soldier named Juan Ponce de Leon, who 
had been governor of the island of Porto Rico. From 
stories told him by the Indians he gained the idea that 
a fountain with these strange powers lay not far to the 
north, and, as he felt age creeping upon him, he grew 

.so 



1513] THE SPANISH AND FRENCH IN THE SOUTH 31 

eager to bathe in its magic waters and bring back his 
lost youth. He therefore got ready an expedition and 
sailed north, passing through the beautiful Bahama 
Islands and on Easter Sunday of 1513 coming within 
sight of a verdant coast which he named "Terra de 
Pascua Florida" (Land of Flowery Easter). This 
land has ever since been known as Florida. 



<« If n, ' • y . , ^ \y -JJLTif gjxcirjrl^icr-iJXccutaif 




Ji^.^ t^civce /iC'Ua coii/<^o-' Ue Va ji' Lo~ 



De Leon Fighting the Natives of Florida (from an old print). 



54. What De Leon Found.— That the old knight landed 
and made an earnest effort to find the fabled 
fountain we may be sure, but the waters of youth 
were not in that land, and he returned in sad disap- 
pointment. He came again in 1521 and now sought 
to plant a colony in Florida, but the Indians there 
were more warlike than those of Cuba, and he was 
driven off with a mortal wound. Thus he found death 
instead of youth in the flowery land. 



32 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION [1528 

55. De Narvaez and De Vaca. — Other Spanish advent- 
urers visited various parts of the coast/ and in 1528 an 
overland expedition in search of gold was made by 
Panfilo de Narvaez, who landed in Florida and made 
his way inland. Instead of gold, he and his men 
found misfortune, hunger, and death. Of the four 
hundred in the expedition only four escaped death, 
and this through being made prisoners by the Indians 
of the Texas coast. These four — an officer named 
Cabeza de Vaca, two sailors, and a ncgro^made a 
wonderful journey and had remarkable adventures, 
passing westward from tribe to tribe, until they had 
travelled more than two thousand miles. Finally, eight 
years after their capture, they reached the Gulf of 
California. Here they found some Spaniards from 
Mexico, which had been conquered by an adventurer 
named Cortez fifteen years before. De Vacanvas the 
first to discover the great width of the continent. 

56. De Soto's Expedition. — We have now to speak of 
the two greatest expeditions made by the Spaniards 
into what is now United States territory. One of 
these was made by a Spanish soldier named Fernando 
de Soto, who had helped Pizarro in the conquest of 
Peru and in 1530 was Governor of Cuba. It was the 
lure of gold that led him to Florida with his nine 

' One of these of a date a few years earlier was an adventurer 
named Vasquez de Ayllon, who sought the coast north of Florida 
with the purpose of kidnapping natives to use as slaves on the 
plantations. This enterprise was not successful and he came again 
in 1526 with six hundred people and tried to found a colony. In 
this also he failed, the settlers dying from hunger and disease or 
being killed by hostile Indians. 



1539] THE SPANISH AND FRENCH IN THE SOUTH 



33 



ships, nearly six hundred men, and more than two 
hundred horses. He hoped to find somewhere in this 
region a rich and populous kingdom, like that which 
Pizarro had found in Peru, but he was destined to 
bitter disappointment. Taking with him bloodhounds 
to hunt the Indians and chains to fetter them, burning 
their villages, plundering their granaries, and treating 




De Soto Discovering the Mississippi. 



them as slaves, he roused their bitter hostility and his 
journey was one of continuous battle. Where he might 
easily have made friends he made bitter enemies. 

57. Discovery of the Mississippi. — Landing at Tampa 
Bay in Florida in 1539, De Soto's journey was a very 
slow one, for he was opposed at every point by the 
Indians, whom the Spaniards infuriated by their 
cruelty. For two years the explorers wandered 
about, journeying more than fifteen hundred miles 
3 



34 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION [1541 

without finding gold or any trace of a civilized nation. 
They were much reduced in numbers when, in 1541, 
they reached the bank of the mighty Mississippi, 
being the first white men to gaze on that noble 
stream, though De Vaca had seen one of its mouths 
some years before. 

58. The Fate of the Explorers. — Crossing this stream, 
half clad and worn with long wanderings, the Span- 
iards roamed up its western side and far inland, return- 
ing to the Mississippi near the mouth of the Red 
River in May, 1542. Here De Soto, exhausted by 
hardship and suffering, died, and was buried at night 
under its waters. The remnant of his men built boats 
and made their way down the river, finally reaching 
the Spanish settlements on the coast of Mexico. Nearly 
half of the expedition had perished and those who 
escaped were a half-naked, half-starved, and sadly dis- 
appointed remnant of the proud treasure-seekers. 

59. Coronado's Expedition. — "While De Soto was thus 
wandering in the east, another explorer was wander- 
ing in the west. Cortez had sent expeditions as far 
as California, which sought in vain for gold. But Cabeza 
de Vaca, in his long journey, had heard stories of 
rich cities in the north, and a monk sent out to spy the 
land came back with extravagant fancies of the wealth 
of these cities. Inspired by these tales, Francisco de 
Coronado, governor of a northern province of Mexico, 
led an expedition, consisting of more than a thousand 
Spaniards and Indians, into this region in 1540. All 
he found were' the poor natives of the pueblo settle- 
ments. Deeply disappointed, yet lured on by false tales, 
he journeyed with part of his men still farther north, 



1564] THE SPANISH AND FRENCH IN THE SOUTH 35 




reaching, as is supposed, what is now the Platte River 
in Nebraska. It is a singular coincidence that about 
this same time De Soto was in Missouri, a few hundred 
miles to the east. Coronado returned to Mexico in 
1542, cured, let us hope, of his thirst for gold. 

60. The Huguenots and Port Royal. — The Spaniards 
were not the only explorers of the south. Twenty 
years after the death of De Soto a small party of 
Huguenots, or French 
Protestants, led by Jean 
Ribault, sailed to Florida 
and sought to plant a colony 
at what is now Port Royal, 
South Carolina. They had 
been sent by Admiral 
Coligny, the great Hugue- 
not leader in France, as 
the vanguard of a French 
Protestant colony in 
America. But, less than thirty in number, they soon 
grew weary and homesick and built a rude vessel, in 
which they set sail for home. 

61. Menendez and the Huguenots. — In 1564 a second 
expedition w^as sent out, which built a fort on the St. 
John's River in Florida. Here they were encroaching 
on territory claimed by Spain, which had made several 
unsuccessful efforts to plant colonies in Florida. In 
1565 Pedro Menendez, a Spanish naval officer, was sent 
to drive out these French intruders. He landed and 
built a fort about twenty miles south of the French 
settlement, naming it St. Augustine. Then he marched 
to the French colony, took it by surprise, and slaugh- 





Courtesy of A. Stapletou, Carlisle, Pa. 
Huguenot Bible. 



36 



THE ERA OF EXPLORATION 



[1565 



tered without mercy all he found there, men, women, 
and children alike. 

62. The Massacre at St. Augustine. — Meanwhile Ribault 
had put to sea with a force to attack the Spaniards; 
but a tempest wrecked his ships, his men barely 
escaping with their lives at a point not far from 

_ the Spanish fort. 
Menendez learned of 
this on his return and 
treacherously induced 
Ribault to surrender, 
with about one hun- 
dred and fifty of his 
men. Once in his 
hands, they were ruth- 
lessly massacred, on 
the plea of their being 
heretics. The remain- 
der of Ribault 's force, 
two hundred in num- 
ber, afterwards sur- 
rendered. The lives of 
these were spared, but 
they WTre made slaves 
for life. Thus in treachery, blood, and slaughter was 
founded St. Augustine, notable as the oldest town in 
the United States. 

63. The Slain Huguenots Revenged. — When the news 
of this outbreak reaclunl France there was great 
indignation, even among the Catholic enemies of the 
Huguenots, and Dominique de Gourgues, a wealthy 
French Catholic, rosolved to revenge his slaughtered 




Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 
The Oldest House in St. Augustine. 



1515] THE FRENCH IN THE NORTH AND WEST 37 

countrymen. Fitting out an expedition at his own 
expense, he sailed for Florida, surprised and captured 
the garrison which Menendez had left in the French 
fort, and hung them all.^ Then, not having sufficient 
force to venture an attack on the Spaniards at St. 
Augustine, he returned to France. 

2. THE FRENCH IN THE NORTH AND WEST 

64. The American Fisheries. — When Sebastian Cabot 
returned to England in the autumn of 149S and told of 
seas so full of codfish as almost to stop the progress of 
his ships, the hardy fishermen of Europe, as may be 
imagined, did not wait long before crossing the ocean 
in his track in search of these wonderful shoals of fish. 
The French fishermen were the first to come, and while 
the Spaniards were busy seeking gold in the south, 
these daring fellows were equally busy seeking fish in 
the north. Some of them sailed beyond the fishing- 
banks, and discovered an island which they named 
Cape Breton, and one of them, John Denys b}' name, 
discovered and explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
in 1506. 

65. The Voyage of Verrazano. — The monarchs of France 
knew little of what their fishermen were doing, but 
Francis I., who became king in 1515, heard with 
scorn of the Pope's line of demarcation, which divided 
the east and the west between Portugal and Spain. 

' Menendez had hanged the soldiers taken in Fort Carolina, 
placing over their heads the inscription: ''I do this not as to 
Frenchmen, but as to Lutherans. " De Gourgues hung his prisoners 
where the French had been hung, placing over them the following 
inscription: "I do this not as to Spaniards, but as to assassins." 



38 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION [1524-34 

"Show me," he said, "that cLausc in Father Adam's 
will which divides the earth between the Spanish and 
the Portuguese." In 1524 he sent out an Italian 
mariner named Verrazano to explore the coast. Reach- 
ing land at Cape Fear, North Carolina, Verrazano 
sailed north, entering the Hudson River and the 
harbor of Newport, and sailing up the New England 
coast. Like others before him, he hoped to find a 
water-way across the continent by which India might 
be reached. 

66. Cartier in the St. Lawrence. — France being at war 
with Spain, no new expedition was sent out for ten 
years. Then, in 1534, Jacques Cartier entered and 
named the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and sailed up the St. 
Lawrence River for many miles, reaching an Indian 
village named Hochelaga. He climbed the mountain 
in its rear, named it Montreal (royal mountain), and 
gave to the countrv the name of New France.^ 

67. Religious Wars in France. — For many years after 
this the terrible religious wars in France put at end to 
all efforts to found colonies in America, except the 
unfortunate Huguenot one under Jean Ribault already 
spoken of. These wars came to an end in 1598, when 
Henry I^'. ascended the throne, and from that time 
France was active in the effort to explore and colonize 
its chosen field in the north. 

> As early as 1.51.5 a French nobleman. Baron de Lery, sought 
to plant a colony on Sable Island, but peril of starvation soon 
brought it to an end. A similar fate awaited a colony which Cartier 
took out in 1541. For two years the settlers struggled against 
cold and hardship and then abandoned Canada to return to their 
native land. 



1603] THE FRENCH IN THE NORTH AND WEST 39 

68. French Explorers and Settlers. — In 1598 the Marquis 
de la Roque sent out a colony taken from the 
French prisons, which was placed on Sable Island, 
where De Lery's colonists had settled nearly a century 
before. Being pardoned a few years later, they gladly 
made their way back to France. But the French had 




by this time discovered 
that valuable furs were 
to be had in New 

Early French Settlements IN Canada. FraUCe, and lu 1603 

the king granted to a 
nobleman named De Monts a monopoly of this 
valuable trade and the privilege of colonizing a vast 
region extending from the 40th to the 46th parallel 
of latitude, or from the site of Philadelphia to Cape 
Breton Island. This great tract was named Acadia, 
a title that was afterwards confined to Nova Scotia 
and New Brunswick. 

69. The First French Settlement. — In the following 
year ''1604) Poutrincourt, a comrade of De Monts, 



40 THE ERA O^ EXPLORATION [160S 

made a settlement in the peninsula now known as 
Nova Scotia, which he named Port Royal. This 
colony, which preceded by three years the first English 
one in America, proved successful, and Port Royal 
still exists, though under its later name of Annapolis, 
given it by the English conquerors in honor of their 
Queen Anne. 

70. Champlain the Explorer. — In the year 1()03 the 
St. Lawrence River and Montreal were visited l)y one 
of the greatest of French explorers, Samuel de Cham- 
plain, who returned in 1G08 and established Quebec 
as a fur-trading post. He governed Canada until his 
death in 1635 and left it a flourishing colony. An active 
and enterprising man, he explored the great lakes as 
far west as Lake Huron, and made his way southward 
to the beautiful Lake Champlain, which bears his name. 

71. Battle with the Iroquois. — Champlain's journey 
southward took place in 1G09, with a party of Huron 
Indians on a warlike expedition against the Iroquois 
of New York. A battle was fought near where Fort 
Ticonderoga was afterwards built, and proved an easy 
victory for the Hurons, their foes being terrified by 
the firearms of the whites. They had never before 
seen a white man nor heard a musket-shot. This was 
the first battle between the whites and the red-men 
in the north. Though it ended in victory for the 
French, they were to find their success a costly one. 
It made the Iroquois their bitter foes, and their hos- 
tility prevented the French from ever settling in the 
country south of the St. Lawrence, which lay within 
the grant to De Monts. Thus this country was left 
open to English settlement. 



THE FRENCH IN THE NORTH AND WEST 



41 



72. The French and the Indians.— The French proved 
good settlers in a new country. They were daring 
and enterprising and made friends with the Indians, 
some of them marrying Indian wives and adopting 
their habits. The roving fur traders went far into the 
forests and up the lakes and the fur trade grew very 




Battle with thk Ikuwliuis Indians. 

important. Jesuit missionaries also came to Canada 
and were very zealous and successful in their efforts 
to convert the Indians to Christianity. For many 
years the French confined themselves to Canada, but 
at length they made their way into the territory of 
the present United States and their claims and those 
of the English came into conflict. This makes their 
movements important to our history. 



42 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION [1673-82 

73. The Mississippi Explored.— It was one of the Jesuit 
missionaries, Father Marquette, who first reached 
the northern section of the great river of the west, 
the stream called by the Indians the "Father of 
Waters." The lakes had already been explored as 
far as Lake Superior, and in 1673 Marquette, in com- 
pany with a forest rover named Joliet, made a canoe 
trip down the Wisconsin River to the Mississippi and 
floated down that stream as far as the mouth of the 
Arkansas. Fear of the Spaniards and Indians pre- 
vented them from going farther. Seven years later 
another missionary. Father Hennepin, went up the 
o-reat river as far as the Falls of St. Anthony. 

74. Robert de La Salle.— The greatest of the French 
explorers was Robert de La Salle. In 1669 this in- 
trepid adventurer discovered the Ohio and Illinois 
Rivers, in 1679 he built the first vessel ever seen on 
the Great Lakes, and in 1682, after misfortunes enough 
to discourage any but one of the greatest of men, he 
launched his canoes on the Mississippi and sailed down 
that great stream to its mouth, where, on the 9th of 
April, he planted the banner of France and took pos- 
session of the country in the name of Louis XIV. of 
France, calling it Louisiana in honor of his king. 

75. La Salle's Colony and its Fate. — This is an event 
of the deepest importance, since the French control 
of the great river of the west gave rise to some of the 
leading historical events of later years. La Salle's 
exploit was the basis of the French claim to a vast 
territory, gradually extended till it reached from the 
Alleghanies to the Rocky Mountains, all of which was 
then known as Louisiana. Fresh mi-^fortuncs, however, 



1699] THE ENGLISH AND DUTCH IN THE EAST 43 

awaited the explorer. Some years after his voyage 
he brought out a colony from France to settle this new 
province, but by mischance they missed the mouth 
of the Mississippi and landed in Texas, four hundred 
miles to the west. Thence the indomitable adventurer 
started on foot to seek relief in Canada, but he had not 
gone far before he was murdered by some member of 
his party, his career being cut short by the bullet of 
an assassin. 

76. French Settlements.— Something more should be 
said of the French settlements in that region, which 
began with the colony of Biloxi, on the coast of the 
Gulf of Mexico, in 1699. This was followed by several 
other settlements. Mobile being founded in 1701 and 
made the capital of the province. New Orleans was 
founded in 1718, and soon became so important that 
in 1723 it replaced Mobile as the capital. French 
stations were also made at Natchez, St. Louis, and 
other points on the Mississippi, and an active river 
trade was developed. 

3. THE ENGLISH AND DUTCH IN THE EAST 

77. The Atlantic Coast Region. — As may be seen, the 
Spanish settlers confined themselves to the south, 
forming no settlements farther north than St. iVugus- 
tine in Florida. The French confined themselves at 
first to the north, Acadia, the St. Lawrence, and the 
lakes being their limit in their early career. Between 
them lay a long stretch of promising coast on which 
neither made settlements. It offered no gold to the 
Spaniards and no abundance of fish or furs to the 
French, while for a long time no other nation seemed 



44 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION [1560-83 

to care for it, so that it lay without a settlement until 
more than a century after the discovery by Columbus. 

78. Slaves and Freebooters. — Many years passed after 
the voyages of the Cabots before the English made 
an effort to take possession of any part of the New 
World. We read of Sir John Hawkins in 1560 kid- 
napping negroes in Africa and selling them as slaves 
to the Spanish in the West Indies, and of Sir Francis 
Drake in 1567 plundering the Spanish treasure-ships 
and settlements, and then following the track of 
Magellan around the earth. This kind of enterprise 
was not much to the credit of England, though in those 
days it was not thought wrong and there were praise 
and honor given to slave-dealers and freebooters alike. 

79. The Northwest Passage. — It was not until 1576, 
nearly eight}" years after the voyage of the Cabots, 
that the English made another effort at exploration. 
Then Sir Martin Frobisher sought to find a passage 
to Asia by sailing around the northern coast of America. 
John Davis made three voyages for the same purpose 
(1585-89) and with like ill result. 

80. Sir Humphrey Gilbert. — The first Englishman who 
sought to explore America south of the Arctic region 
w^as Sir Humphrey Gilbert, to whom Queen Eliza- 
beth made a grant of any new lands he might dis- 
cover, and who set sail for the west in 1579. As in 
the case of most of the early explorers, misfortune 
attended him. His first effort, and a second made in 
1583, were both failures. In the latter he landed in 
Newfoundland and claimed that island for the English 
queen. It is surprising to learn that he found fift}'- 
three vessels in the harbor of St. John's, and that at 



15S4-S7] THE ENGLISH AND DUTCH IN THE EAST 45 

that early date about four hundred vessels, of various 
nations, annually visited Newfoundland. The splendid 
fisheries had thus given rise to an extensive traffic. 

81. The Fate of Sir Humphrey. — Death ended Sir 
Humphrey's enterprise. Part of his fleet was wrecked, 
and on his return home he had only two vessels, in 
the smaller of which he sailed. A storm arising, he 
was asked by the captain of the larger ship to come on 
board, but he refused to leave his crew, saying: "We 
are as near to heaven by sea as by land." Xight 
came on, and when the next day dawned the little 
vessel had vanished, never to be seen again. 

82. Raleigh's Colony. — Sir Walter Raleigh. Gilbert's 
half-brother and a favorite courtier of Queen Elizabeth, 
made the next venture, sending out several expeditions, 
the first in 15S4, the last in 1587. 
A colony was founded on Roa- 
noke Island, oiT the coast of 
Xorth Carolina, and the ciueen 
was so pleased with the report 
of the beauty of the country 
and richness of the soil, that 
she named it Virginia, in honor 
of herself as a virgin queen. 
The first colonists met with mis- 
fortune and after less than a 

. , Sir Walter Raleigh. 

years trial they returned to 

England. Others were sent, but war with Spain pre- 
vented Raleigh from aiding them for several years, and 
when a relief expedition finally reached the island all the 
settlers had disappeared. Cut on a tree was the word 
Croatoan, the name of an Indian village not far away. 




46 



THE ERA OF EXPLORATION 



[1587 



But none of the colonists were found in this village and 
nothing was ever heard of thcm.^ Raleigh had spent 
over forty thousand pounds on his ventures and lack of 
money obliged him to abandon the project of founding 
a colony. The only important result of his efforts was 
the introduction of tobacco and the potato into Eu- 
rope; the former, as many think, an injury, the latter 
a help, to all nations. 





The Laxoinc; of Hendrick Hudson (from au old priut^. 



83. The Dutch Explorers.— A few words will tell the 
story of the explorations of the Dutch, for these were 
confined to a single voyage, that of Henry Hudson, 
an English captain in the service of Holland. The 



' An interesting incident connected with the settlement on 
Roanoke Island in 1587, was the birth of Virginia Dare, the first 
child born of English parents in America. 



1609] 



THE CLAIMS OF THE NATION: 



47 



purpose of Hudson, like that of others before him, 
was to try to find a westward passage to India, and 
in 1609, in his little ship, the Half Moon, he entered 
Xew York Bay and sailed up the great river which 
flows into it, hoping that he might reach the Pacific 
Ocean by this stream. In those days little was 
known of the great width of 
the continent. Xear where 
Albany now stands he was 
forced to stop, the water 
growing too shallow for his 
vessel, so once more the hope 
of finding a westward passage 
was lost. 

84. What Hudson Found. — 
Yet Hudson's voyage was by 
no means a failure. He foun 1 
that the Indians had valuable 
furs, which they were ready to 
exchange for knives, hatchets, 
beads, and other cheap goods, 
returned home with the story of this promising avenue 
of trade other Dutch ships quickly made their way to 
the Hudson, and by 1614 a trading station was founded 
on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the river named 
after the explorer. This was the beginning of the great 
citv of New York. 




The H-\-LF Moon. 



When the Half ^loon 



4. THE CLAIMS OF THE NATIONS 

S5. The First Settlements. — At the opening of the seven- 
teenth century the only settlements made by Europeans 
on the territory of the United States were the Spanish 



48 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION 

ones of St. Augustine, founded in Florida in 1565, and 
Santa Fe, founded in Xew Mexico in 1582. But the 
nations were now awaking to the value of the western 
continent and beginning to make claims of their respec- 
tive rights in the Xew World. 

86. The Spanish Claim. — The first in this field were the 
Spanish, who already held an imperial dominion in the 
south and claimed the north as well, holding that 
Florida extended northward with no fixed limit. In 
the west the explorations of Coronado and De Soto 
gave them a similar claim. The discoveries of Colum- 
bus, De Leon, De Ayllon, and others added to the 
cogency of their ill-defined claim to the whole conti- 
nent, in that age when it was held that discovery 
gave rights of possession. 

87. The French Claim. — The claim of the French was 
founded on the voyages of Verrazano along the coast 
and of Cartier inland, and was later extended by the 
explorations of Champlain and La Salle. It originally 
extended along the coast from the latitude of Phila- 
delphia to Labrador, and in later years included all 
Canada and the basin of the Mississippi and its tribu- 
taries, from the Alleghanies to the Rocky Mountains. 

88. The English Claim.— The English claim was based 
on the discoveries of the Cabots, and thus extended 
from Labrador southward to the boundary of the 
Spanish settlement in Florida. Westward no limit 
was placed to it, and it was finally held to extend to 
the Pacific. 

89. The Dutch Claim.— After 1609 the Dutch also 
had a claim, based on the voyage of Henry Hudson, 
and extending from Cape May northward to include 



THE CLAIMS OF THE XATIOX5 



49 



.-30 

^ 




*, - 




- 


r^ 


^ ^ > — 


^^■^ ^ 


ift" 




f 




"" ^^^ 






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"^u^^- 







^r\ 






\ t 



A 





i'l>02::=A. JTT.r 



' r V «Twra BT TEX 



Xnr X3 



50 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION 

southern New England. Inland no special claim was 
made, and Dutch explorations were confined to New 
York and its vicinity. 

90. The Claims Overlap. — As may be seen, these 
several claims overlapped each other, and the attempt 
to take possession of them was very likely to lead to 
war. At first, indeed, there were but a few hundred 
settlers over all this vast territory, those at St. Augus- 
tine. And as other settlers came, they found localities 
where they did not interfere with one another. Yet as 
they increased in numbers a struggle for possession 
began, and finally brought on a bitter war between 
the English and French in the north and a severe con- 
flict between the English and Spanish in the south. 

SUMMARY OF EVENTS. 

1513-1536. During these years several Spanish adventurers 
landed on the coast of what is now the United States, De Leon in 
search of the Fountain of Youth, De Ayllon to kidnap Indians, 
De Narvaez to explore the country. Failure and death were the 
fate of them all. 

1539-1542. Fernando de Soto landed in Florida with an expedi- 
tion in search of gold and empire. He discovered the Mississippi 
River, but died on its banks and was buried under its waters. 
Francisco de Coronado sought for rich Indian cities in New Mexico, 
but failed to find them and went north as far as Nebraska. 

1565. A colony of French Huguenots, who had settled in Florida, 
were attacked and massacred by a force of Spaniards under Men- 
endez, who founded St. Augustine. De Gourgues sailed from France, 
attacked the Spaniards, and avenged the slaughter of his fellow- 
countr>Tiien. 

1505-1534. French fishermen visited Newfoundland and discov- 
ered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Cartier sailed up the St. Lawence 
River, reached the site of Montreal, and named the country New 
France. 



SUMMARY OF EVENTS 51 

1604-1608. Poutrinc'ourt founded the first successful French 
colony at Port Royal in Acadia. Champlain founded Quebec in 
1608, explored the lake country, and fought with the Iroquois 
Indians. His victory was a costly one for the French. 

1673-1682. The Mississippi River was visited and explored by 
the French — first by Marquette and Joliet, then by Hennepin, 
and lastly by La Salle, who went down it to its mouth and claimed 
the country for France, under the name of Louisiana. 

1560-1587. Early English expeditions to America: — Hawkins, 
the kidnapper of slaves; Drake, the plunderer of the Spanish 
settlements; Frobisher and Davis, who sought a northwest passage 
to Asia ; Gilbert, who died a noble death, and Raleigh, who founded 
the first English colony, on Roanoke Island. This colony proved 
unsuccessful. 

1609. Henry Hudson, with a Dutch ship, entered New York 
Bay and sailed up the Hudson River. The Dutch developed a fur 
trade in this region and built a trading camp on Manhattan Island. 
This was the beginning of the great city of New York. 

Within the years above given four nations laid claims to portions 
of America, — Spain, France, England, and Holland. The claims 
of all of them were greater than they were able to maintain. The 
Dutch and French in time lost aU their possessions, and finally 
the Spanish also, England alone keeping an important section of 
America. 

TOPICS FOR RE\^EW. 

Either orally or in written composition. 

1. The Northmen. — Who they were — what they did — results of 
their discoveries. 

2. Christopher Columbus. — Birth — early life — his belief as to the 
shape of the earth — efforts to prove his theory — his great voyage and 
the result — subsequent voyages — treatment — death. 

3. Other Discoveries. — By the Cabots — Amerigo Vespucci — Bal- 
boa — Magellan — De Soto — Cartier — De la Salle — Hudson. 

reference books. 
1. Irving's Companions of Columbus. 2. Parkman's France tn the 
New World. 3. ^ancroh'sUnited States. 4. Hari' s E pochs of American 
History. 5. Edwards's Sir Walter Raleigh. 6. Eggleston's Beginners 
of a Nation. 



PART III 

THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



1. THE PLACES AND DATES OF COLONIES 

91. The Early Settlements. — Wc may take the year 
IfiOO as the tui'ning-i)oint in the history of English 
settlement in the United States. The only attempts 
to form colonies before that date were those of Sir 
Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh, both of 
which were failures. But with the succeeding century 
success came, and flourishing colonies were found-ed. 
It is our purpose here to describe briefly how the 
earl}'- settlements were made. 

92. Qosnold's Voyage. — In 1602 Bartholomew Gos- 
nold crossed the ocean to the New England coast 
with a party of proposed colonists. Coming to a cape 
where codfish were very abundant, he named it Cape 
Cod, and built on an island near by the first house 
ever erected in New England. Here he found cedar 
logs and sassafras-root very plentiful, and as these 
then sold well in England, he loaded his ship with 
them and sailed for home. As food was scarce the 
settlers decided not to remain. 

93. The London and Plymouth Companies. — The mer- 
chants of England were now growing eager to send 
settlers to America, hoping to form there centres of 
valuable trade, and in IGOG they induced James I. to 
charter two trading companies, one called the London 
Company and the other the Plymouth Company, from 
the cities in which they were organized. 

52 



1607] 



THE PLACES AND DATES OF COLONIES 



53 



The whole coast, from Florida to Canada, was then 
called Virginia. Of this the region between latitudes 
34° and 38°, or from about Cape Fear to the mouth of 
the Potomac, was now named South Virginia and was 
granted to the London Company. The region between 
41° and 45°, or from about Long L^^land to Nova 
Scotia, was granted to the Plymouth Company and 
named North Virginia. The strip between 38° and 41°, 
or between the mouths of the Potomac and the Hudson, 
was open to both com- 
panies. At a Later date 
it was added to the 
grant that these strips 
of land should extend 
from the Atlantic to 
the Pacific oceans. 

94. The Work of the 
Companies. — In the 
memorable year of 
1607 both companies 
sent out colonies. 
That of the Plymouth g^^^ „^ ^„^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^. 

Company landed in 

Maine, near the mouth of the Kennebec River, and 
built some huts, in which they spent the winter — a very 
cold one. The next spring the disgusted colonists took 
ship back for England, saying that such a country was 
not fit for Englishmen to live in. The London Com- 
pany sent its expedition to the south, choosing Roa- 
noke Lsland, the scene of Raleigh's colonies, as the 
place of landing. But a storm drove them past the 
island, and they sought safety in Chesapeake Bay. 




54 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1609-14 

Here they found a beautiful river, which they named 
James River, and formed on its banks a settlement 
which they called Jamestown, both names being given 
in honor of King James I. This colony met with 
disasters, but it remained, and became the first per- 
manent English settlement in America. 

95. The Dutch on the Hudson.— Two years later, in 
1G09, the Dutch under Henry Hudson, as we have 
already stated, entered the Hudson River, sailed up 
that stream, and laid claim to the district without 
heed to the English claim. Fur traders kept coming 
from Holland and by 1614 a regular station of them 
was formed on Manhattan Island, at the site of the 
future New York. This grew into a permanent colony, 
but was taken from the Dutch by the English in 1664 
and became one of the English colonies. 

96. The Later Settlements.— It must suffice here 
simply to name the succeeding settlements. These 
were those of the Pilgrims, who landed at Plymouth 
in Massachusetts in 1620; of the Puritans, who settled 
at Salem in 1628 and at Boston in 1630; of the Catholics 
under Lord Baltimore, who settled on the Potomac in 
1634; of the Swedes, who settled on the Delaware in 
1638; and of the Quakers under William Penn, who 
reached the Delaware in 1681 and settled Philadelphia 
in 1682. North Carolina was settled in 1663 and 
South Carolina in 1670. There were some smaller 
settlements of less importance, and by the end of the 
century the whole length of the coast was occupied, 
with the exception of Georgia, in which a colony was 
not founded until 1733. 



16071 



VIRGINIA 



55 



2. VIRGINIA 

97. The Isolation of the Colonies. — In the early history 
of the United States, that of the Colonial period, it is 
impossible to confine ourselves to a single story. 
There were thirteen colonies in all, and each of them 
had for many years a history of its own. Not until 
much more than a century after the first settlement 
did they come into anything like a union. Each was 




J, *^':. - -ji^wgSL" ■ ■ _ 

Landing at Jamestown (from old print). 




long a separate colony, with its own interests and 
events, and we must take them up separately, as we 
should have to do with different countries. And as 
Virginia had been making history for years before an- 
other colony was formed, its story comes first in order. 
98. The Settlement of Jamestown. — It was on the 13th 
of May, 1607, that the settlers sent out by the Lon- 
don Company landed on a little peninsula jutting out 
from the north bank of the James River. It was a 



56 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [KiU? 

flowery, fertile situation, called by the Indians the 
"good land." They set foot on shore with hopeful 
feelings, but desperate times lay before them — largely 
due to their own lack of judgment and discretion. 

99. Character of the Colonists. — Fifty-two of the one 
hundred and five settlers called themselves gentlemen, 
that is, they belonged to wealthy families and were 
not used to work. They hoped, like the Spaniards 
before them, to find gold, and gave much more time 
to seeking for this yellow metal than to building good 
dwellings and tilling the ground for food. There were 
mechanics and tradesmen in the colony, but these 
followed the example of the '^gentlemen. " As a 
result everything went wrong. Their food gave out, 
and the Indians, who had no reason to like these new- 
comers, would not supply them. They had settled 
on an unhealthy spot and were soon attacked by fatal 
fevers. By September half of them had died. Starva- 
tion threatened the remainder, but corn was brought 
them by some friendly Indians, game was found in 
abundance, and the frosts of autumn stopped the 
fever. Log huts were built for the winter and affairs 
began to look brighter. 

100. Captain John Smith. — In times of need men often 
arise fitted by nature to lead and control. There was 
one of these with the Virginia colony, a man without 
whom it would certainly have proved a failure. This 
was the famous Captain John Smith, the ablest and 
most interesting figure in early American history. 
Full of good sense, energy, and activity, long used to 
stirring adventure, born with the capacity to command, 
he was the one man needed. 



1607] 



VIRGINIA 



57 



101. Smith Taken Prisoner.— Smith was not a man to 

keep still. Energetic and enterprising, his first effort 
was to lead an exploring expedition in search of the 
Pacific Ocean, which many then supposed to be at no 
o;rcat distance from the Atlantic. The Pacific was not 
found, but Smith was taken prisoner by the Indians, 
who led him before their great chief Powhatan. When 




JoHX Smith ox Hip Return Journey to Jamestown. 

first taken he saved his life by showing the Indians 
his pocket compass, which seemed to them magical, 
and writing a letter to his friends at Jamestown. 
When the Indians found that the paper could ''talk'* 
they were filled with astonishment and decided to 
take the captive to their chief. 

102. Pocahontas to the Rescue. — Captain Smith tells 
a romantic story of his later adventure. When brought 



58 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1609 

before Powhatan, that sour old savage ordered one of 
his warriors to knock out the white man's brains. 
But before the club could fall Pocahontas, the chief's 
young daughter, ran forward and saved his life by 
clasping his head in her arms. 

103. The Soul of the Colony. — Captain Smith was set 
free by Powhatan and returned to Jamestown, where 
he became the soul of the colony. He induced the 
heedless settlers to build huts and plant corn. He 
coaxed or forced the Indians to give them food. He 
explored Chesapeake Bay, entering its inlets and 
rivers. Made president of the council, he became the 
acting governor of the colony, and forced the "gentle- 
men" to work. Those who would not work were given 
nothing to eat, and those disposed to swear, of whom 
there were many, were punished by having a can of 
water poured down their sleeves for every oath. As 
may be imagined, laziness and profanity did not 
flourish in that colony. 

104. The Starving Time.— Unfortunately, in 1609, the 
explosion of a bag of gunpowder injured Smith so 
severely that he had to return Vo England. As soon 
as he was gone the old laziness came back. Work 
ceased and food disappeared. The Indians, whom 
Smith had made friendly, grew hostile under ill treat- 
ment and the colony was in imminent peril. Five 
hundred new colonists had arrived, but they were the 
refuse of London streets and jails, and before the next 
winter ended hunger and sickness had swept nearly 
all of them away. Only sixty men were left alive in 
the colony. That winter was long known as "The 
Starving Time." 



1610] 



VIRGINIA 



59 



105. Lord Delaware Saves Virginia. — In 1610 Lord Del- 
aware was appointed governor of the colony and 
crossed the ocean with three ships. As he sailed up 
the James River on the Sth of June, he was surprised 
to meet a vessel coming down. In it was the feeble 
remnant of the colonists, who had left Jamestown in 
despair 
and were 
on their 
way back 
to Eng- 
land. He 
brought 
new set- 
tlers and 

an abundance of supplies and 
the despair of the colonists 
was turned to joy. They 
were glad to return, the new 
governor thanking God that 
he had saved Virginia. 

106. The Rule of Governor 
Dale. — Lord Delaware did 
not remain long, sickness 
forcing him to leave the 

colony, and Governor Dale, a stern old soldier, was 
sent out to replace him. Harsh and resolute in dis- 
position, he ruled the colonists as he had been used to 
rule his troops. The man who dared to criticize him 
had a hole bored through his tongue. All were made 
to go to church under penalty of being whipped and 
starved. Thieves and mutineers were hung. It was 




The Middle Colonies. 



60 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1011 



a stern and rigid disciDline, but five years of it brought 
order to Jamestown. 

107. A System of Communism. — Stern as Governor Dale 
was, he was a man of sound sense and soon saw the 
source of most of the trouble at Jamestown. The 
colony had been formed on a principle that would not 
work. All the land was held for the good of the 
London Company, and all the food raised or obtained 

from the Indians had 
to be taken to the pub- 
lic storehouse, from 
which it was divided 
among the settlers. 
As a result the lazy 
did little work, and 
the industrious did 
not feel inclined to 
work for them. This 
system was well meant, 
but it was not well 
I - "jM l te a fitted to the situation. 

^. ^,„„v "'W^^ >08. A Change in 

ToL...rr. M. .„ um,s'i. ' Affairs.— Governor 

Dale found it judi- 
cious to change this system. He gave every settler 
a tract of land for himself, requiring only that every 
one should bring two and a half barrels of corn each 
year to the public storehouse, by way of a tax for the 
support of the colony. All any one could raise beyond 
this belonged to himself. At once a change of spirit 
was shown. Work grew brisk, even the lazy showing a 
share of energy, and the colony quickly began to prosper. 




1612] 



VIRGINIA 



61 



109. The Culture of Tobacco.— But the chief cause of 
the prosperity of Virginia was the adoption of a new 
industr}', that of the culture of tobacco. This plant 
had long been in use by the Indians, and since it had 
been brought to England by Drake and Raleigh there 
had grown up an active demand for it. In 1612 John 
Rolfe, a prominent settler, began to grow tobacco 
for the English market, and with such success that 
others soon followed him. In a few years the settlers 




The Marriage of Pocahontas. 



were devoting most of their land to this plant, and by 
1619 the annual export was more than forty thousand 
pounds. This pungent weed, which King James 
opposed and heavily taxed, brought wealth and com- 
fort to the colony. 

110. Marriage of Pocahontas. — Two classes of people 
were wanted in Virginia after the culture of tobacco 
had made it prosperous, women and workmen. John 
Rolfe. the introducer of tobacco culture, was a young 



62 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1614 

man in want of a wife, and, finding no young women 
of his own race, turned to Pocahontas, the Indian girl 
who had saved Captain Smith's life, and asked for her 
hand in marriage. Old Powhatan was willing and 
they were wedded in the little church at Jamestown. 
Some years afterwards he took her to England, where 
she was much admired for her grace and simplicity. 
She became sick and died as they were about to return. 

111. Young Women Sent to Virginia. — The lack of 
women in the colony was overcome by the London 
Company, which sent out a number of young maidens 
as wives for the colonists. The planters who wished 
to marry these had to pay the price of their passage, 
fixed at one hundred pounds of the best tobacco — • 
afterwards it went up to one hundred and fifty pounds. 
This w^as willingly paid and the newcomers quickly 
found husbands and homes. 

112. A Supply of Laborers. — A lack of laborers on the 
large plantations that were being formed by the to- 
bacco planters was the next trouble. It was filled in 
a way suited to the times, though such a method 
would be impossible in our more civilized age. Crimi- 
nals were taken from prison and sent in shiploads to 
Virginia, for the use of the planters as farm laborers. 
Vagrants were kidnapped on the streets to be sent 
over for the same purpose, and even orphan children 
were seized and sent across the seas. Some poor but 
enterprising young men, who wished to reach America 
but lacked the means to do so, came over of their own 
free will in this manner. 

113. The Apprentice System. — These persons were 
bound out to labor for a term of years. They were 



1619] VIRGINIA 63 

called "indentured servants," or "apprentices," but 
were often treated like slaves. When they became free 
some of them became planters themselves, some became 
hunters and trappers, and some fell back into their 
old vagabond habits and became undesirable members 
of the community. 

114. The Beginning of Negro Slavery. — In those days 
negro slaves were often brought from Africa to the 
West Indies, and in 1619 a Dutch vessel entered the 
James River and sold twenty negroes as slaves to the 
colonists. The planters soon began to prefer these 
to white laborers, and others were brought, so that 
by the year 1700 there were enough of them to serve 
all purposes, and the system of white apprenticeship 
soon after ceased. 

115. The Government of the Colony. — We have now 
come to the year 1619, a momentous one in the history 
of the colony, not only for the introduction of negro 
slavery, but for another important reason, that of 
the beginning of free government. Up to this time the 
people of the colony had no voice in the government. 
They were ruled by a governor and council, who 
in turn were ruled by the London Company. The 
council made the laws and the governor could be as 
arbitrary as he pleased. We have seen what a tyrant 
Governor Dale was. 

116. The People Protest. — This system was much the 
same as that adopted in the Spanish and French colon- 
ies, but to the English, who had helped to elect their 
parliament at home, it was hard to endure. At home 
they had been free men; here they were given no 
political rights. In 1619 their number had increased 



64 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1619-2] 

to four thousand, and they sent home a strong protest 
against being governed in this way. The London 
Company saw that their demand was a just one, and 
agreed to let them have a law-making assembly of 
their own. 

117. The Virginia Assembly. — Governor Argyll, who 
had opposed the people, was removed, and Governor 
Yeardly sent out. Under orders from the Company 
he called on the boroughs or districts — of which there 
were then eleven — to elect two ''burgesses" each, as 
representatives, or members of an assembly, to meet 
at Jamestown and make laws for the colony. 

118. The House of Burgesses. — This assembly was 
given' the dignified name of the House of Burgesses. 
It held its first meeting in the choir of the Jamestown 
church on July 30, 1619 — a date of importance, as 
that of the beginning of free government in America. 
It must be borne in mind that there was no free govern- 
ment at that time in any of the Spanish or French 
colonies, and that Virginia was still the only English 
colony in America. The " Pilgrim " colony at Plymouth 
did not begin its existence until the next year. 

119. A Written Constitution. — The governor and his 
council formed part of the assembly, and the laws 
passed by it had to be ratified by the London Company. 
But, on the other hand, the orders of the Company 
were of no avail until they were ratified by the assembly, 
so that the Virginians were now able to control their 
own affairs. In 1621 this action of the Company was 
confirmed by a written constitution, which formed the 
beginning of constitutional government in America. 
It is well to say that one of the first burgesses was a 



1624J VIRGINIA 65 

man named Jefferson, and that it was a descendant of 
his who wrote the Declaration of Independence in 1776. 

120. Virginia Made a Royal Province. — King James 
of England did not favor free government by the 
people, and the action of the London Company in 
giving the Virginia colonists a legislature of their own 
made him so angry that he brought suit against the 
company in the courts for mismanagement. The 
judges favored the king — as they were apt to do in 
those days — and in 1624 the charter was taken from 
the Company and Virginia made a royal province, 
being brought under the direct rule of the king. He 
determined to rule it in his own way, and began to 
write out for it a new code of laws; but fortunately 
he died before this was ready, and his son, Charles I., 
had so much trouble at home that he let Virginia alone. 
So it had 'the good fortune of keeping its assembly 
and its power of making the laws and voting the taxes. 

121. The Natives of Virginia. — Now we must go back 
for a time to the real owners of the country, the 
Indians, or red-men, as they were called. We may be 
sure that there were many among them who did 
not like to see these newcomers spreading over their 
old hunting grounds. They, of course, had no idea 
that the whites would soon be coming over the sea 
like a tidal wave and driving the old owners from their 
homes, but there were already enough of them in 
Virginia to alarm all the far-seeing natives. 

122. The Friendship of Powhatan. — While Powhatan 
lived all went well. After his attempt to kill John 
Smith he had become a strong friend of his late cap- 
tive, and remained friendly to the whites till his death 

5 



66 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1622 

in 1G18. The Indians were at this time quiet and 
peaceful, they had plenty of land, so they could well 
spare that which the whites occupied, and some at- 
tempts had been made by the newcomers to teach 
them the arts and religion of civilization. 

123. The Indian Conspiracy. — Powhatan was succeeded 
by his brother Opechankano, a warlike chief, who 
hated and feared the whites, though he vowed that 
the sky should fall before he would break peace with 
them. Yet as he saw them spreading more widely 
over the tribal lands he determined to destroy these 
dangerous strangers and free the land from their 
presence. A conspiracy was organized in secret by 
the wily chief and the clay fixed. On the morning of 
March 22, 1622, the Indians visited the houses of the 
whites and sat at their tables in their usual friendly 
way. Suddenly the work of death began. At the 
hour fixed upon the savages attacked the colonists 
on all sides and killed them without mercy. Only 
Jamestown escaped. Its people had been warned by a 
friendly Indian and put on their guard. Yet on the 
outlying plantations in that day of blood nearly three 
hundred and fifty men, women and children fell 
victims to their treacherous foes. 

124. Massacre and Revenge. — The massacre continued 
in the succeeding period, till of the four or five thou- 
sand Virginians nearly half were slain. Much sym- 
pathy was felt abroad, but no help was sent to ^^ir- 
ginia, and the colonists w^re left to fight for themselves. 
This they did as soon as the effect of the first panic 
was over. The Indians were pursued and killed and 
their villages burned: those who fled were hunted 



1644] 



VIRGINIA 



67 



like wild beasts and mercilessly slain: ten years passed 
before peace was restored, and j^y that time great 
numbers of the Indians had been slaughtered. 

125. A Second Massacre. — ^Thcre was another Indian 
plot and massacre in 1044 in which five hundred of the 
whites were slain. A bloody revenge followed and the 
Indians were now driven out of the settled region. 
Robbed of their homes and country, the spirit of 




Hall of "Shirley" House, Virginia, I)ating From 1650. 



revenge burned in their hearts, and they began the 
work of massacre again in 1676. This led to impor- 
tant events of w^hich we shall speak later. 

126. Tyrannical Governors. — Leaving the story of the 
Indians, we must return to that of the whites. Charles 
I., who was acting the part of a tyrant in England, 
sent to Virginia in 1629 a governor named Sir John 
Harvey, who stole the public money and tried to rob 
the people of their lands. In the end the people sent 



68 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1660 

him home, and when the king found that they were 
determined not to have him, a new governor, Sir 
William Berkeley, was sent over. He also was a born 
tyrant, a man who did not believe in popular rights, 
free schools, or a printing press, and in later years his 
tyranny led to rebellion. 

127. The Coming of the Cavaliers. — Berkeley came in 
1G42, and soon after civil war broke out in England, 
by which Charles I. was driven from the throne and 
Cromwell, the leader of the people, was made Lord 
Protector of England. Berkeley was now sent home 
and a new governor was elected by the House of 
Burgesses. In the following years many of the Cava- 
liers, the aristocratic party which had fought for the 
king, came to Virginia, and they continued to come in 
such numbers that Virginia became distinctly a Cava- 
lier settlement. Among them were the ancestors of 
George Washington and other Virginians famous in 
the times of the American Revolution. 

128. The Navigation Laws.— During Cromwell's time 
a measure of great importance was passed, the "Navi- 
gation Laws," one of the measures which intime led 
to the Revolution. Under these laws the planters 
were not permitted to trade with any country but 
England. They were not disposed to obey these 
oppressive measures, but when Charles II. came to 
the throne in 1660, he enforced them with a sternness 
that went far to ruin the planters. As they could not 
buy or sell outside of England, they were forced to 
accept for their tobacco what the English merchants 
chose to give, and to pay for their sugar, cloth, and 
other goods what the English merchants chose to ask. 



1673] 



VIRGINIA 



69 



129. Berkeley as Governor. — When Charles II. became 
king Berkeley was sent back as governor, and he now 
ruled in a despotic manner that made the people 
bitter against him. As the House of Burgesses then 
in session was friendly to him, he would not permit a 
new one to be elected, but kept the old one in existence 
until 1675. This was bad enough, but it was not all. 
In 11)73 the king, in his profligate way, gave the whole 
of Virginia, which then . i 
contained forty thou- 
sand colonists, to two 
of his favorites. Lords 
Arlington and Culpe- 
per, with utter disre- 
gard of the rights 
and privileges of the 
colonists. 

130. The People Re= 
bellious.— The king's 
gift made the people 
rebellious. Their 
taxes were enormous, 
the Navigation Laws 
had robbed the crops 
of much of their value, the assembly did not represent 
them, and now their whole country had been given to 
two profligate English courtiers. It is not surprising 
that they felt like striking for their lost liberties. 

131. The Indian Troubles. — It was the outbreak of 
the Indians in 1676 that gave the colonists their op- 
portunity. This was their own fault. They had treated 
the Indians with much injustice, and these retaliated 




(Quarrel betwi i n H \( on- \N-n Ri.rkki.i.y. 



70 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1676 



in their own wa}' by attacking and killing tlio frontier 
settlers. Governor Berkeley was appealed to for aid, 
but he would not give it. He was afraid to call out a 
military force lest it should turn against him. The 
planters then raised a small force of their own and put 
at the head of it a young planter named Nathaniel 
Bacon, who had recently come from England. Bacon 
marched against and defeated the Indians. This 

action of Bacon and 



the planters infuriated 
the governor, who de- 
nounced the young 
captain as a rebel. 
132. Bacon's Rebel= 
lion. — The tyrant gov- 
ernor found the man 
he called a rebel more 
than his match. Bacon 
at once returned, and 
the people so strongly 
suj^ported him that 
Berkeley was not only 
forced to grant him the 
commission he asked for, but also to call for the 
election of a new House of Burgesses. Of this Bacon 
was elected a member. Raising a new force. Bacon 
again marched into the Indian country, but he was 
no sooner out of sight than Berkeley issued a procla- 
mation in which he was called a traitor and his men 
rebels. Tlie affair ended in the young captain march- 
ing upon Jamestown, which he captured and burned 
to the ground, some of the patriots under him setting 




Old CiiuiK'ii Towj.k at Jamestown. 



1676] VIRGINIA 71 

fire to their own houses, that they might not shelter 
the adherents of the tyrant. Such was the end of the 
first Enghsh town in America, for Jamestown was 
never rebuilt. 

133. Berkeley's Revenge. — Nathaniel Bacon w^as a 
born leader, but, unfortunately, he took sick and died 
immediately after these events (October 1, 1G76). 
Their leader gone, the troops dispersed, and Berkeley, 
who had taken to flight, returned, bent on a deadl}'' 
revenge. He acted without mercy, hanging more than 
twenty of the principal citizens with hard])' the form 
of a trial. ^ Thus ended this first American rebellion 
which, singularly enough, preceded by just a century 
the Declaration of Independence in 1776. 

134. Later Events. — Berkeley was recalled by the king, 
who reprimanded him so sharply for his acts that 
the old tyrant died of a broken heart. He had ruled 
over Virginia as Charles I. had sought to rule over 
England. Lord Culpepper came out in IGSO to rule the 
province which the king had given him. Tt was his 
purpose to get as much money out of it as he could, 
but the king recalled him and revoked his grant. 
With this the troubles in Virginia ended and all went 
well for many years, while tlie people grew steadily in 
numbers and wealth. 

^ Berkeley treated his captives with insulting derision. Drum- 
mond, one of Bacon's chief supporters, fell into his hands. "You 
are very welcome, Mr. Drummond, " he said. "I am more glad to 
see you than any man in Virginia, you shall be hanged in half an 
hour." And he was. Charles II., when he heard of these acts, 
said: "That old fool has hung more men in that naked country 
than I did for the murder of my father. ' 



72 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 

3. NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 
PLYMOUTH. 

135. New England Visited and Named.— Wc have seen 
how the London Company was successful in founding 
a colony. The Plymouth Company had less success. 
Many ships crossed the ocean to what was then called 
North Virginia, but none brought men to form a 
settlement. Captain John Smith, five years after he 
had left Jamestown, explored the coast and made a 
map, naming the country New England. He never 
went back to Virginia. 

136. The Pilgrims. — Thirteen years passed after the 
settlement of Jamestown before a colony was founded 
in New England, and then this was done by a little 
band of men and women who were fleeing from religious 
persecution, and spoke of themselves as "pilgrims 
journeying to a far land." From this the}^ have since 
been known as the Pilgrims. They were the first people 
after the Huguenots in Florida to seek a land where 
they could worship God in their own way without 
being treated as criminals or heretics. 

137. The Separatists. — These people were also called 
Separatists, because they had separated from the 
Church of England, the religious body supported by 
the government, and adopted a new system of worship. 
For this they were treated so badly that they left 
England and went to Holland, a land of much religious 
liberty. But they did not like the idea of their children 
ceasing to be English, as might have happened in this 
foreign land, so some of them asked and obtained 
from the London Company the privilege of emigrating 
to its domain in America. They also borrowed money 



1620] 



NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 



73 



from some London merchants, which they agreed to 
pay back by the fruits of their labor during the next 
seven years. 

138. Voyage of the Mayflower. — In July, 1620, this 
little band of wanderers left Holland in the ship 
Speedwell and sailed to Southampton, England, 
where they had engaged a vessel called the Mayflower, 
They now sailed in both vessels, but the Speedwell 
leaked so badly that they had to seek harbor in the 




On the Mayflower, Provincetown Harbor, Nov. 21, 1620. 



port of Plymouth. From this place, on September 16, 
1620, the band of pilgrims— one hundred and two in all, 
men, women and children — set sail in the Mayflower. 
The weather proved stormy and it was November 
before they reached the American coast, which they 
first caught sight of at Cape Cod. 

139. A Change of Plan. — They had intended to settle 
somewhere near the Hudson River, but, as the storms 
continued, they entered a harbor within the shelter 
of the cape, and here dropped anchor on the 21st of 



74 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1620 

November. They were now within the teriitory of the 
Plymouth Company, in which they had no authority 
to settle, but they had had quite enough of the sea and 
well knew that the company would be glad to have 
settlers upon its land, so a boat party was sent out to 
explore the coast for a suitable site. 

140. A Compact of Qovernment. — The King had refused 
to give the Pilgrims a charter, so, like true Englishmen, 
they determined to govern themselves. With this in 
view, they held a meeting in the caljin of the ship, and 
there formed a compact of government, one of the first 
ever made by common people for themselves. They 
decided that the laws should be made by all the people, 
who should meet, discuss, and vote upon things needful. 
This system still exists in New England, where the 
people of small localities meet and make laws to govern 
their local affairs. It is known as the "town meeting." 
John Carver, one of their party, was chosen as governor. 
He, with the aid of a council, was to enforce the laws 
made by the people. 

141. The Landing of the Pilgrims. — The boating party, 
after searching along the coast, selected a place which 
John Smith had vi^'t and had named Plymouth upon 
his map of New England. As they had sailed from 
Plymouth in England, this name seemed to them a 
token of good fortune, and they landed from their boat 
on a granite boulder which has ever since been cherished 
as the stepping-stone by which civilization entered New 
England. The date of this landing was December 21, 
1620, A few days later the Mayflower sailed over to 
the chosen place, and the ocean-weary people gladly set 
foot on the shore of the New World. 



1621] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 75 

142. Captain Miles Standish. — It is an interesting fact 
that, as the settlers at Jamestown had brought with 
them a bold soldier, Captain John Smith, so this little 
band of religious fugitives also brought with them a 
valiant warrior, Captain Miles Standish, who was to 
take an important part in their enterprise and win 
much fame for himself in New England history. 

143. The First Winter. — Like the Jamestown people, 
the new settlers had much to contend with. The 
landing was made in the depth of winter and they 
had only a small allowance of poor food and little 
shelter from the bitter cold. They built a large log 
hut, but so many were 
sick that this soon be- 
came a hospital, and 
by the time spring 
weather came half the 
little compan}^ were 
dead. Among these s«,,k.., I'm x^xi.^^n^^ni r ..,. .m,les 

was John Carver, their 

governor. They were afraid of the Indians and did 
not wish them to know of their losses, so the graves 
were levelled and Indian corn was planted over them. 
Their case was like that of the Spaniard De Soto, who 
was buried in the Mississippi to prevent the Indians 
from learning of his death. 

144. The Pilgrim Leaders.— In April, 1G21, the May- 
flower set sail again for England. But the Pilgrims 
had come to stay, and, despite their hardship, not a 
man or woman went back. They elected a new 
governor, William Bradford, whom they liked so well 
that he was re-elected every year, except for five 




76 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1621 



years when he declined to serve, until his death in 
1657. Another of their leaders was Elder Brewster, 
who expounded the Gospel for his small flock; and a 
third was Miles Standish, their stout-hearted warrior. 
145. The Indians. —Some of the Indians did not like 
to see these white strangers settling on their land. 
Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, became their 
friend and made a treaty with them which was not 
broken until 1(37.5. But Canonicus, chief of the Nar- 




March of Miles Staxdish. 

ragansetts, was hostile to the strangers, and to let 
them know that he was ready to fight them, he sent 
them a bundle of arrows tied with a snake skin. When 
Governor Bradford received this threatening present 
he filled the skin with powder and bullets and sent 
it back to the chief. This filled the savages with 
alarm. They had seen what the white men's guns 
could do, and fancied that they had the power of 
using thunder and lightning. So Canonicus decided 
he had better let them alone. 



1622] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 77 

146. Exploits of Miles Standish. -Captain Standish 
was quite ready to fight the Indians. When he was 
told that some of them had made a plot to kill all 
the whites, he sought their leaders with a few brave 
followers, seized the plotters, and killed them with 
their own knives. At a later date, when a man named 
Morton settled with about thirty others at a place 
near by, w^hich he named Merr}^ Mount, and began a 
career of drinking and dancing, the Pilgrims sent 
Captain Standish to put an end to these wild revels. 
The bold soldier wasted no words on them, but seized 
Morton and shipped him back to England.^ 

147. The Progress of the Pilgrims. — At first the Pilgrims 
cultivated the land in common, as the Jamestown 
settlers had done. But they soon found this unwise 
and divided it up into family tracts. But the land was 
not rich, and they decided that the fur trade and 
fishing were more profitable. They grew in members 
very slowly. Ten years after their landing there were 
only three hundred persons in Plymouth. But they 
had succeeded in paying off their debt to the London 
merchants, were at peace with the Indians, and were 
content and happy. Their population never became 
great, for they had rivals at Boston in the north, who 

' Captain Standish was not a member of the Pilgrim community, 
but they had brought him along as their military leader. He was 
a short, stout man, of hot and hasty temper. His wife died during 
the first winter at Plymouth, and, as tradition tells us, he fell in 
love with a pretty maid named Priscilla. Being more afraid of a 
girl than of an Indian warrior, he sent his friend John Alden to 
speak to her for him. But the fair maid answered, "Why not speak 
for yourself, John?" John did so and Miles lost his lady lo\'e. 
He found another, and this time spoke for himself and won her. 



78 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENl [1628 

had a much better harbor and gained population 
more rapidly. In 1691 the Boston colony absorbed 
that of Plymouth. It is of this second colony, known 
as the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, that we must 
next speak. 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 

148. The Puritans. — The Pilgrims were not the only 
religious body that found England an unpleasant 
country to live in. There was a much larger body of 
religious people who had not separated from the 
Church of England, but did not like the way things 
were done in it. They said it ought to be purified, 
and so they became known as Puritans. They were 
treated badly by the king, but in time they grew so 
powerful in England that they drove Charles I. from 
his throne and ruled England under their leader 
Cromwell. But long before this many of them, fol- 
lowing the example of the Pilgrims, had come to 
America. 

149. The Puritan Emigration. — Small parties of Puri- 
tans sought New England from time to time after the 
Pilgrim settlement, making themselves homes at 
places on the shores of Massachusetts Bay, north of 
Plymouth. John Endicott brought over a larger 
party in 1628 and settled at a place which he called 
Salem, a Bible name meaning "Peace." These were 
in advance of the large settlement made at Boston in 
1630. 

150. A Colony Chartered. — A number of the leading 
Puritans in England, seeing what was being done, 
decided to form a colony on a larger scale and bought 
from the Plymouth Company an extensive tract of 



1630] 



NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 



79 



land, stretching from three miles south of Charles 
River to three miles north of the Merrimac. Inland it 
had no fixed limit. They also appUed to Charles I. 
for a charter and he gave them a very liberal one. 
They were granted the right to elect their own governor, 
deputy governor and council, the latter being free to 
make laws for the colony. The only restriction made 
by the king was that these laws should not conflict 
with the laws of England. 

151. The Charter Taken to America. — There was noth- 
ing in the charter to say where the company should 
hold its meetings, and soon after receiving it 
thej^ decided to take this valuable paper to America. 
The king did not object. The Puritans were giving 
him trouble at home and it is likely 
he was glad to get rid of as many of 
them as chose to go to America. In 
his view, their room was better than 
their company. 

152. The Settlement of Boston.— In 
1630 the great Puritan migration 
began, John Winthrop, one of the 
chief men among the Puritans, was 
its leader. Eleven ships, with nearly 
one thousand persons and many 

horses and cattle, crossed the ocean, Winthrop coming 
with them as governor of the new colony. The charter 
was also brought, so they did not need to be governed 
from England. The first landing was made at Salem, 
but they soon went to Charlestown, and then to a hilly 
peninsula on the opposite side of Charles River. From 
three peaks found here they named the place Trimoun- 




JoHN Winthrop. 



80 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1631 

tain or Tremont: but a year later they called it Boston, 
from the English town whence many of them had come. 

153. The Colony Develops. — As in all the early settle- 
ments, sickness and death attacked the people at 
Boston in their first year, but the colony soon began a 
rapid growth, and in four years it numbered about four 
thousand people. In ten years there were about 
twenty thousand, occupying a number of towns and 
villages. The settlers usually came as church congre- 
gations, led by their own pastors, and each new party 
was apt to start a town of its own. 

154. Industries of the Colony. — The land was poor, but 
fish were abundant, lumber and furs were to be had 
in plenty, and the pigs and cattle brought over soon 
multiplied, so that the people quickly found themselves 
prosperous. Codfish were plentiful, ship-building 
became an active industry, and before many years a 
profitable trade had grown up with the West Indies. 

155. Puritan Bigotry. — When the Puritans left for 
America they were still members of the Church of 
England, though they did not like many of its doc- 
trines and ceremonies. In America they broke loose 
from it completely and formed a church system of 
their own. They were so bitter against the Church of 
England that when two of its members came to Salem 
they were sent back. In fact, these pious Puritans 
were very intolerant, and quite as ready to persecute 
those who disagreed with them in religious matters 
as the Church of England had been. They were 
bigoted enough to think that their way was the 
only right way, and they had no room in their colony 
for those who claimed the right to think for themselves. 



1(531] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 81 

156. System of Government. — Each village made laws 
for itself, the town meeting system of Plymouth having 
been adopted. In 1631, the year after their coming, 
they decided that only church members in good stand- 
ing should have the right to vote. This was well enough 
at first, but it made the ministers the ruling people 
in the colony, and brought about a narrow way of 
thinking that in time caused trouble, for people with 
views different from theirs soon came into the colony. 
Two of these were the famous Roger Williams and 
Anne Hutchinson, of whom we shall speak later. 

157. The King and the Bostonians. — Charles T., the 
English king who had given the Puritans their charter, 
became dissatisfied when he saw the people of Massa- 
chusetts doing very much as they pleased, and seem- 
ingly building up a little republic of their own. This 
did not suit him, for he was much of a tyrant, and in 
1G36 he decided to take back the charter he had given 
them and make certain English noblemen the lords of 
their land. The news of what he proposed started a 
small rebellion in Boston, the king's act making the 
people so indignant that they were ready to fight for 
their rights and their charter. Forts were built and 
mounted with cannon, military companies were formed 
and a beacon light w^as set up to warn the villages if a 
king's ship should approach. Fortunately for them, 
King Charles had now stirred up so much trouble at 
home that he had no time to carry out his plans 
abroad, and the colonists were left to rule themselves 
as before. 

158. The Coming of the Quakers. — Before many years 
the Puritans in Boston had troubles of a different kind. 

6 



82 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1656 



A. new religious sect had appeared in England, called 
in derision the Quakers, which opposed all forms and 
ceremonies in religion. They were greatly persecuted, 
but their zeal could not be checked. Two women of 
this sect came to Boston in 1056, bent on making 
converts. The horrified Puritans seized them and 

thrust them into jail, 
boarding up the win- 
dows of their cell so 
that no curious per- 
sons might hear what 
they might have to 
say. The books they 
brought with them 
were burned and they 
were put on board ship 
and sent back to Eng- 
land as soon as this 
could be done. 

159. The Persecution 
of the Quakers. — The 
Friends, as these 
people called them- 
selves, were not to 
be stopped so easily. 
Soon others landed in Boston and insisted on making 
their doctrines known. They were banished on penalty 
of death, and two of them who returned were hanged 
Two others were hanged later. This was worse than 
had been done in England, and many of the people of 
Boston grew so indignant that the magistrates did not 
dare hang some others thev had condemned. But the 




Persecution of the Quakers. 



1661] 



NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 



83 



Quakers were fined, imprisoned, flogged, branded with 
tlie letter H (meaning Heretic), bored through the 
tongue with hot irons, and whipped at "the cart's tail" 
from village to village. 

160. The Provocation to Severity. — This was strange 
treatment of Christians by Christians, though the 
newcomers did much to provoke the Puritans to severe 
measures. Their religious zeal was so great as to make 
them almost insane. Some smeared their faces with 
black paint and ran 
howling through the 
streets. Others broke 
into the meeting 
houses on Sunday, 
dressed in sackcloth 
and with ashes on 
their heads, and called 
the ministers hypo- 
crites and deceivers, 
bidding them to come 
down from their pul- 
pits. SomiC committed 
still worse excesses, 
and it is little wonder that their actions made the 
Puritans furious. But persecution only made them 
more persistent, and after Charles II., in 1661, forbade 
any further punishment of Quakers the excitement 
quickly died away. 

161. The Salem Witchcraft. — It is well here to speak 
of another outbreak of persecution which came about 
thirty years later. For centuries before there had 
been a strong belief in witchcraft in Europe and 




The Witch House, Salem. 



84 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1692 



thousands of poor wretches had been put to death as 
witches. In 1692 this foolish delusion made its ap- 
pearance in America. In Salem some young people 
were seized with fits and acted in an odd way. The 
doctors and ministers said they were bewitched, and 
several poor women of the town were charged with the 
crime and put in jail. The excitement quickly grew, 
the people went into a panic of fear, and before the 
excitement ended nineteen persons had been hanged 



< si» ^ I ^ I » iirrtt f ■ d i}fii|riiiitfti 




ITBBSV 



Om) Harvakd Collkgk (from etching by Paul Revere). 



as witches. One old man, who would not plead either 
''guilty" or "not guilty," was pressed to death under 
heavy weights. For about a year this delusion con- 
tinued, then their lost wits came back to the people 
and the persecutions ceased. With them all signs of 
witchcraft vanished. 

162. The Development of Education. — It might be 
thought from the witchcraft outbreak that the people 
of New England were very ignorant and superstitious. 
Yet people were put to death for witchcraft in Europe 



1638] 



NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 



85 



for many years later, five of them in England as late 
as 1722. And education had not been neglected in the 
new colony. Schools were early established, a free 
school being founded' in 1639 and a printing press 
being set up in the same year. Before this time 
Harvard College had been founded, taking its name 
from John Harvard, who gave it a valuable library 
and a large sum of money in 1638. Care was taken 
that all children should be taught to read. 

163. Dealings with the Indians. — During most of the 
time mentioned the settlers in Massachusetts had been 
on friendly terms with the Indians, treating them well 
and paying them for their lands. But there were 
wars between the tribes, and in some of these the 
settlers took part and thus made other tribes their 
enemies. Massasoit, the Wampanoag chief, who had 
agreed to keep peace with the Pilgrims at Plymouth, 
kept his word faith- 
fully. But after his 
death his son Philip 
was badly treated by 
some of the whites 
and resolved on re- 
venge. 

164. King Philip's 
War. — King Philip, as 
the new leader of 
the Wampanoags was 
called, was shrewd 

and wary, and formed a secret plot for the extermina- 
tion of the whites. He saw them increasing so rapidly 
that he feared that unless they were destroyed the red 




Copyri^lit Lss7 l.y W. h. Willi:iiii-. 

Old Fokt of the Puritans. 



'IM 



86 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1675 

men would be. Other tribes were brought into the 
plot, and in June, 1675, a terrible outbreak began, some 
villages of the Plymouth colony being attacked and 
many of their people killed. The war continued for 
more than a year, with desperate fighting and great 
bloodshed. 

165. The Outcome of the War. — After the settlers 
had defeated the Wampanoags, Philip led the Nip- 
mucks to deeds of blood. The Narragansetts were 
also brought into the conspiracy, but before they 
were ready to take the warpath their stronghold was 
attacked and burned and about a thousand of them 
were slain. Those who were taken alive were sold as 
slaves to West India planters. In 1676 Philip was 
killed and the war ended. While it lasted a dozen 
towns were destroyed and more than forty others had 
been scenes of fire and bloodshed. Of the colonists, 
more than a thousand men and a great many women 
and children had perished. After this desperate war 
there were no more troubles with the Indians of that 
section,. 

MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE 

166. Gorges and Mason. — The early history of North- 
ern New England is closely connected with that of 
Massachusetts. The first permanent settlement there 
was made at Pemaquid Point, east of the Kennebec 
River, about 1626, and before this two Englishmen, 
Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain John Mason, 
obtained a grant of the region lying between the 
Merrimac and Kennebec Rivers. After some fishing 
villages had been built, they divided the land between 
them, Mason taking that west of the Piscataqua River, 



1679] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 87 

which he named New Hampshire, after Hampshire in 
England, and Gorges that cast of the river, naming it 
Maine — perhaps as the ''main" land, as distinguished 
from the many islands off its coast. 

167. Settlements Formed. — Saco, Biddeford and Port- 
land were settled in Maine from 1630 to 1632, but 
Gorges paid little attention to his province, and in 
1652 his heirs sold it to Massachusetts. It remained 
thus connected until 1820, when it was made into the 
present State of Maine. New Hampshire gained 
independence much earlier. The first settlement 
within its borders was a fishing village near Ports- 
mouth, and Dover was settled about the same time. 
By 1641 there were four settlements, which were 
annexed to Massachusetts in that year. But they 
were separated in 1679 by Charles II., who made of 
them, with the country in the interior, the royal 
province of New Hampshire. From this time on it 
contmued a separate colony. 

RHODE ISLAND 

168. Roger Williams. — The settlement of Rhode 
Island came into being through the intolerant bigotry 
of the Puritans. They found it not easy to tie every- 
body down to their own narrow views. One of the 
rebels was Roger Williams, pastor of a church in Salem, 
who had a strong belief in freedom of thought. No 
man, he said, ought to be forced to pay taxes to sup- 
port a minister. Every man, as he claimed, had the 
right to worship God in the way his conscience bade him. 
As for the land in America, he said that it belonged to 
the Indians and the king had no right to give it away. 



88 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1635 



169. Williams Forced to Flee. — These doctrines alarmed 
the Puritan clergy and magistrates. They ordered 
\Villiams to leave the country, and, to prevent being 
arrested and sent to England, he fled into the wilder- 
ness. This was in the winter of 1635, a bitterly cold 
one, but Williams had made the Indians his friends 
and they gave him food and shelter. In the spring of 




Roger Williams Sheltered bt thi \ 



i;k \<; \NSK ITS 



I'fn.m 



>1.1 print"). 



1036 he reached the lodge of Massasoit, the Indian 
chief, who gave him shelter and presented him with a 
tract of land on Narragansett Bay. Joined here by five 
friends, he and they built houses at a place he named 
Providence. In 1039 he founded there the first Baptist 
church in America. So many had joined him by this 
time that Providence already had a considerable 
population. 



1636J NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 89 

170. Anne Hutchinson. — Roger Williams was not the 
only one whom the Puritans refused to let live in their 
colony. Many besides him were forced to seek shelter 
elsewhere and chief among these was a woman, Mrs. 
Anne Hutchinson. Well educated and of much native 
ability, Mrs. Hutchinson held opinions about ''grace" 
and "good works" which differed from those of the 
Puritans. In 1636 she startled them by beginning a 
series of weekly lectures, in which she advocated her 
peculiar views. Her influence became so great that 
some soldiers raised to fight the Indians would not 
serve because their chaplain's views did not agree 
with those of Mrs. Hutchinson. 

171. Rhode Island. — The Boston authorities decided 
that this woman preacher was worse than Roger 
Williams and ordered her to leave the colony. She 
followed in the track of Williams, with a number of 
her friends, who bought from the Indians the island 
of Aquidneck, in Narragansett Bay, which soon became 
known as Rhode Island. At the northern end of this 
they founded the town of Portsmouth, and Newport 
was begun soon after at its southern end. 

172. A Growing Settlement. — The stern rule of the 
Puritans helped to people this new colony, every one 
holding liberal opinions being driven from their midst. 
Under Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson there was 
no interference with the opinions of any one, and all 
who found the religious atmosphere of Boston hard 
to breathe made their way to this land of freedom of 
thought. With these newcomers Williams shared the 
lands given him by the Indians, keeping only two 
small fields for his own use. 



90 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1644 

173. A Charter Granted. — Roger Williams had no claim 
to the land he occupied other than that given by its 
old owners, the Indians. To win the king's assent he 
went to England in 1644 and obtained a charter from 
Charles I. Under this charter the different settle- 
ments in his colony were united into one province, 
which was named the ''Providence Plantations." In 
1663 Charles II. gave a new charter, and in this was used 
the name "Rhode Island and Providence Plantations." 
Finall}^, as is well known, the name of Rhode Island 
was used for the whole district. 

174. A Liberal Grant. — The second charter was exceed- 
ingly liberal, the powers of legislation and suffrage 
given by it being so broad that no new constitution 
was needed when the colonies became free. In fact, 
it remained in force as a state constitution until 1843. 
It was finall}^ abrogated on account of its property 
qualification for suffrage. 

175. Religious Liberty. —The striking feature in the 
Rhode Island government was that of full religious 
liberty. When Williams came back from England he 
had laws passed which guaranteed to everybody 
freedom of faith. There was no restriction to Chris- 
tians, since Jews, Turks, and any one else were free 
to worship in their own way. It is truly said that it 
was "the first legal declaration of freedom of conscience 
ever adopted in Europe or America." 

CONNECTICUT 

176. The Valley of the Connecticut. — As the settlers 
spread westward from the seashore of New England, 
they were naturally attracted by the; beauty and fertile 



1633] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 91 

soil of the vallo)' of the Connecticut River (an Indian 
word meaning "Long River"). Not only the Puritans 
of Massachusetts but the Dutch, then settled on the 
Hudson, made their way to its banks, both drawn to 
it by the hope of a valuable fur trade. 

177. The Dutch Fort. — In the summer of 1633 a small 
ship from Plymouth came to the mouth of the Con- 
necticut and sailed up its fine stream. Proceeding 
for some fifty miles up the river, they were surprised 
at seeing before them a fort, mounted with cannon, 
and with Dutch soldiers on the walls. ''Go back or 
we will fire," was the hail. But the Pilgrims did not 
go back and the Dutch did not fire, and soon the new- 
comers had a house on the site of the present town of 
Windsor and were trading for furs with the Indians. 

178. Saybrook Settled. — These were the first move- 
ments to take possession of this region. In 1635 
more active efforts were made. The English Earl of 
Warwick had obtained from the king a grant of the 
Connecticut Valley, wdiich he soon made over to Lord 
Brooke, Lord Say-and-Seal, and others. John Win- 
throp, son of Governor Winthrop, of Massachusetts, 
made his w^ay thither in the interest of the new pro- 
prietors, and built a fort at the mouth of the r'-'^er 
which he called Saybrook, after his patrons, 'ihis 
shut out the Dutch from their fort up the river and 
they were obliged to abandon it. 

179. An Overland Migration. — The people of Massa- 
chusetts were now alive to the value of the Connecticut 
Valley, and in 1636 a party of more than a hundred 
set out overland from Newtown (now Cambridge) 
for "The West," as they called it, travelling on foot 



92 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1639 

and driving their cattle and hogs through a wilderness 
without roads or bridges. Two weeks brought them 
to the site of the Dutch fort, which they named New- 
town. The next year it was given its present name 
of Hartford. These people were led by their pastor, 
the Rev. Thomas Hooker, who, like Roger Williams, 
did not like the Puritan methods. He did not believe 
that a few leaders had the right to govern the whole 
people. 

180. A Republic Formed. — Another settlement was 
made named Wethersfield, and by 1639 there were so 
many people in this section of Connecticut that they 
thought it time to have some settled form of govern- 
ment. So the people of the three towns of Windsor, 
Hartford and Wethersfield met at Hartford and drew up 
a written constitution. In this no mention was made of 
the king of England or of the company which had been 
granted the Connecticut Valley. Practically it formed 
a republic in the wilderness, which became known as 
Connecticut. In it the Puritan government by church 
members was done away with, and every freeman 
was given the right to vote. In this way Thomas 
Hooker carried oilt his liberal views. 

181. Trouble with the Indians.— Before this was done 
there was war in the young colony. The Dutch had 
ill-treated the Indians and had built their fort to 
defend them from the enmity of the Pequot tribe, 
which occupied that region. The savages were angry 
at seeing new companies of white men settling in their 
country and tried to get the Narragansetts to join them 
in a general war against the English. Roger Williams 
learned of this and visited the Narragansett chief, 



1637] 



NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 



93 



with whom he had much influenco, and persuaded him 
to keep peace with the whites. Thus the Pequots were 
forced to act alone, and this they did by waylaying 
and killing settlers, until thirty of them had been 
killed, some being burned alive in the cruel Indian way, 
182. The Pequot War. — In the spring of 1637 a force 
of about one hundred and eighty men, including seventy 
Mohegan warriors, enemies of the Pequots, was sent 



1 




Attack on the Plqi ot Stbongedld 

against their stronghold, a stout stockade on the 
Mystic River which they thought could not be taken. 
It was captured by surprise before daydawn, the 
entrances being seized and a firebrand hurled on the 
wigwams. The flames spread so rapidly that the 
English were in danger, and more than four hundred 
of the w^arriors perished. Those who escaped were 
pursued and nearly all slain. Almost in a day one of 



94 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1641 

the most warlike of the Indian tribes had been de- 
stroyed and a lesson was taught the savages which 
was long remembered. 

183. A New Colony. — While this war was going on a 
large company of settlers, many of them men of wealthy 
arrived at Boston from England, led by their pastor, 
the Rev. John Davenport. What they had in view 
was to form a little state of their own, governed onl}'' 
by the laws to be found in the Bible. As the laws of 
Moses said nothing about trial by jury, they would 
not accept even this. Boston was not to their taste 
and in the spring of 1638 they sailed for the Con- 
necticut coast, where they founded the town of New 
Haven in a pleasant harbor which they entered. In 
the following years three other towns, Milford, Guilford 
and Stamford, were founded, and the four towns in 
1641 formed a little confederation known as the New 
Haven Colony. In this, as at Boston, only church 
members were allowed to vote. So the newly settled 
territory had two colonies, separate in name and 
organization, and with different ideas of popular 
rights. As Rhode Island was formed of two colo- 
nies and had two capitals, so also had Connecticut. 

THE NEW ENGLAND UNION 

184. The Confederated Colonies. — In 1643 took place 
the first union of colonies for mutual aid ever made 
in America. Its purpose was defence against the 
Indians or the Dutch, in case of attacks by these, and 
it consisted of the four colonies of Massachusetts, 
Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven. Rhode 
Island was left out on account of the enmitv felt 



1643J NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 95 

towards Roger Williams and his followers. The con- 
federation was named "The United Colonies of New 
England," two commissioners being chosen from each 
colony to form a board of management. The powers 
of this board were to call out troops when needed and 
to settle disputes between the colonics. 

185. Civil War in England. — In the years that followed 
great events took place in England. Civil war broke 
out, and Charles I. was driven from his throne, tried 
for his life and beheaded. Cromwell, the leader of the 
people, was made Lord Protector of the kingdom. In 
1660, after Cromwell's death, the king's son was called 
to the throne as Charles II., and one of the first things 
he sought to do was to seize and execute the judges 
who had condemned his father to death. Two of these, 
named Goffe and Whalley, had sought safety in New 
Haven, where Davenport, the minister, aided them. 
Their capture was ordered and th(>y were much sought 
for, but they were never found. 

186. Charles II. and the Puritans. — To punish New 
Haven for the bold act of concealing these men, the 
king in 1662 suppressed it as a colony and attached it 
to Connecticut. But he gave that colony a very liberal 
charter and granted Rhode Island a similar one. 
As for Massachusetts, he was displeased with its intol- 
erant spirit and ordered it to permit the Episcopalians 
to worship there. The stern Puritans paid no heed to 
his order, and for a time seemed in danger of losing 
their charter, but events in England just then kept the 
king too busy to attend to them. 

187. The Charter Annulled. — For more than twenty 
years after this the colonists were left alone to grow 



96 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1684 



and prosper and to govern themselves much as they 
pleased. But trouble was brewing for them. In 1679 
New Hampshire was separated from Massachusetts by 
the king and made a royal province. By 1684 Charles 
II. had grown so angry with the people of Massachu- 
setts, who defied his laws and orders, that he declared 
their charter of no avail. He proposed to give them a 
new one which would bring them more directly under 
the royal authority, but before it could be prepared 
he died and his brother, James II., came to the throne. 

188. Andres and the Charters. — The liberties of the 
colonists were now in danger, for the new king was 
disposed to reign as a tyrant over all his subjects. 
Sir Edmund Andros, a man of his own type, was sent 
abroad as governor of New England and New York, 
with absolute powers. He was bidden to seize the 
charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, which were 
far too liberal for the king's liking. Andros sent 

orders from Boston 
for the delivery of 
these charters, but 
they failed to come. 
Then, in 1687, he pro- 
ceeded with a strong 
force of soldiers to 
Hartford and sternly 
ordered its authorities 
to deliver their char- 
ter into his hands. 

189. The Charter Oak. — The tradition is that while the 
governor and the assembly were discussing the sub- 
ject, they begging him to leave them their charter and 




The Charter Oak. 



1687] 



NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 



97 



he curtly refusing, while the valued paper lay on a 
table near them, the lights in the room were sud- 
denly extinguished. When they were lighted again 
the charter had disappeared. It had been seized, it 
was said, by a Captain Wadsworth, a bold soldier, who 
hid it in a hollow oak 
tree, which was long 
famous as the Charter 
Oak. Andros, furious at 
this, declared the charter 




New England and New Netherland. 

government at an end, and wrote the word "Finis" at 
the end of the last page of the Assembly's minutes. 
190. The Charter Restored.— Fortunately for the 
colonies, James II. was soon after driven from the 
throne and William III. became king. When the news 
7 



98 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1692 

reached Boston the people seized the tyrant Andros, 
put him in prison, and restored their old government. 
In Hartford the lost charter reappeared, the assembly 
met again, and the word "Finis" was erased from their 
minute book. For the time all went on as before in 
Massachusetts, while Connecticut and Rhode Island 
were allowed to keep their charters and elect their 
governors. 

191. Changes in Massachusetts. — In 1G92 the new 
king took Massachusetts in hand. He did not seri- 
ously interfere with its freedom, except that he ordered 
that people of all Christian beliefs should have the 
power to vote and hold office and have their own 
churches, thus putting an end to the old intolerance. 
Aside from this, he let the free government stand, 
with its town meetings and legislature, but in the new 
charter he gave them he took from the people the 
election of the governor, keeping this in his own hands. 
The new charter added Plymouth and Maine to the 
colony of Massachusetts, and also Nova Scotia, which 
was then in English hands. It cannot be said that the 
royal governors greatly enjoyed ruling over Massa- 
chusetts. Their salaries were voted by the General 
Court or legislature, so they were in a degree under 
public control, and there were frequent quarrels, 
continuing until 1775. 

4. NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 
NEW NETHERLAND 

192. The Dutch Settlement.— In former chapters it 
was told how a Dutch ship under Henry Hudson 
sailed up the river since known by his name, and 



1623] NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 99 

trading posts were built on the island at the river's 
mouth. Other trading posts were built up the river, 
and a ''stone house" named Fort Nassau was erected 
on the spot where the city of Albany now stands. As 
the country of the Dutch, known to us as Holland, 
was called by them Netherlancl, they named this 
country New Netherlancl. 

193. The Fur Trade. — The Indians had valuable furs 
to sell and many vessels crossed the ocean to obtain 
them, agents being left on the Hudson to deal with the 
natives. But these were mere traders, and it was 
not until 1623 that a regular colony was sent to 
take possession of the country. 

194. The New Netherland Colony. — The colonists sent 
out settled at several points on the Hudson, called 
at that time the North River, and on the Delaware, 
which they called the South River. A small settle- 
ment was also made on the Connecticut, at the place 
afterwards named Hartford. 

195. New Amsterdam. — As the fur trade proved 
profitable, so many settlers arrived that in 1626 a 
governor named Peter Minuit was sent to take charge 
of them. To prevent trouble with the Indians he 
bought Manhattan Island from them, paying for it 
in beads, buttons and cloth worth about twenty-four 
dollars in all. To-day that sum would buy very few 
square feet of ground anywhere on the island. He 
built a small village, with a fort and warehouse, calling 
the place Manhattan, after its Indian name. After- 
wards it was given the name of New Amsterdam. 
The Dutch were always shrewd enough to buy their 
land from the Indians, paying for land and furs alike 



100 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1626 



with things of no great value, such as knives and 
hatchets, beads and buttons. They made a treaty of 
friendship with the powerful Iroquois tribes of New 
York and took great care to keep on friendly terms 
with them. 




.\i,w A MsTi.nn \\i. 



196. The Patroons. — The government of Holland had 
made a grant of New Nctherland to a trading corpo- 
ration called the West India Company, and it was 
due to this that the land was rapidly settled. Any 
man who could bring out fifty settlers was offered a 
tract of land sixteen miles wide on the Hudson, or 
eight miles if on both sides of the river. It might run 
a long distance back from the stream. These land- 
holders were called ''Patroons," and were required to 
pay the Indians for their land. They ruled on their 
estates like little kings, for the people under them 



1645] NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 101 

were given no political rights. The richest of them, 
a man named Van Rensselaer, had an estate twenty- 
four miles wide' on each side of the Hudson and twice 
that distance back, over all of which he was absolute 
lord. 

197. An Indian War. — Several governors followed 
Peter Minuit, and one of them, named Kieft, who had a 
sharp temper and a lack of wisdom, made enemies of 
the Indian tribes in the vicinity. As a result a fierce 
war began in 1643 which lasted two years and nearly 
ruined the colony. Many of the settlers were killed, 
and they would all have been driven out if the powerful 
Iroquois had not continued friendly. These were at 
war with the French in Canada, and traded furs with 
the Dutch for muskets and ammunition. It had not 
been many years before when they first learned the 
power of the gun in their battle with Champlain and 
the Hurons, but they were quick to make use of this 
new weapon, 

198. Peter Stuyvesant. — At the close of the Indian 
war, in 1645, the notable Peter Stuyvesant was sent 
out as governor of New Netherland. ''Old Silverleg" 
the people called him, for he had lost a leg in the wars 
and wore a wooden one bound with silver. He was 
honest and had good sense, but he was also hot tem- 
pered and arbitrary, and when the people asked the 
right to vote their own taxes he sternly refused. He 
also ordered them all to attend the Dutch Protestant 
Church and was very cruel to some Quakers who 
entered the colony. Orders came from Holland that 
everybody might worship as they pleased, but crusty 
"Old Silverleg" paid little heed to them. 



102 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1664 




New Amsterdam about 1667 



199. On Manhattan Island.— Only a small part of 
Manhattan Island was then occupied. Stuyvesant 
fortified New Amsterdam by building a high and 

strong palisade across 
from river to river on 
the line of the present 
Wall Street. Within 
this were about one 
thousand persons, some 
of them English and 
French and many of 
them negro slaves. But 
in the years that followed the place grew fast in wealth 
and population, and soon passed beyond the wall. 

200. The English Claim.— Though the Dutch claimed 
this country on the basis of its discovery by Henr}' 
Hudson, the English had an older claim based on the 
voyage of the Cabots. And they had the better claim, 
according to the practice of those days, of greater 
strength on the seas. The English were active and 
enterprising and did not hesitate to encroach upon 
the territory of New Netherland. And they were far 
from pleased to have the Dutch intrude between 
their colonies of New England and Virginia and 
occupy the valuable region of the Hudson, with its 
splendid harbor. 

201. The Taking of New Amsterdam. — One day in 
16G4 an English fleet suddenly appeared in the harbor 
of New Amsterdam and demanded the surrender of 
the city. King Charles II., in disregard of the rights 
of the Dutch, had secretly granted this whole region 
to his brother, the Duke of York, who at once sent 



1673] 



NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 



103 



four vessels, with a strong body of soldiers, to take 
possession. Stuyvesant was furious. He swore soundly 
that he would never surrender to these island pirates. 
But he could not help himself. His military force 
was much smaller than the English, and the people, 
whom he had angered by refusing them any political 
rights, were not inclined to fight for him. So he was 
obliged to yield. 
Down came the Dutch 
flag; up went the 
English; New Amster- 
dam ceased to be, and 
New York took its 
place, named after 
the new proprietor. 

NEW YORK 

202. The English 
Government. — The peo- 
ple of New Amsterdam 
found themselves little 
better off under their 
new master. They 
hoped to have the 
privilege of making laws for themselves, as was done 
in the other English colonics, but this was denied them, 
and when they protested against being taxed without 
a voice in the matter, their protest was burned by the 
common hangman. They were therefore not displeased 
when in 1673, during a war between England and 
Holland, their old master got possession again. But 
during the next year the Dutch traded off New Nether- 




By permission of the New York Historical Society. 



Peter Stuyvesant Considering Summons 
TO Surrender New York. 



104 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1685 

land for an island province in the Pacific and England 
came permanently into power. 

203. The People's Rights.— The Duke of York did not 
believe in popular government, but the demand for 
it became so strong that in 1G83 he permitted the people 
to elect an assembly of their own. In 1685 he became 
king and at once took away this right. New York 
was made a royal province under the tyrannical Sir 
Edmund Andros, the man who sought to take away 
the charter of Connecticut. Fortunately for the people, 
the reign of James soon came to an end. 

204. The Leisler Outbreak. — When the people of New 
York learned that King James had fled, and that the 
Prince of Orange was on the throne as William III., 
there was a change. At that time there were two 
parties in the city, one the rich merchants, patroons 
and officials, the other the poorer people. The leader 
of the latter was a German merchant named Jacob 
Leisler. Suspecting the aristocratic party of treacher- 
ous purposes, Leisler at once called out the militia, 
captured the fort, and took possession of the city in 
the name of King William, dispersing the council and 
setting up a new government of his own. 

205. Leisler Becomes a Despot. — For two years Leisler 
governed the city. But he became so despotic as to 
make enemies in his own party, while he imprisoned 
members of the opposite party and seized their prop- 
erty. Complaints reached King William, and in 1691 
he sent out Governor Sloughter to rule the colony. 
Ingoldsby, the governor's lieutenant, arrived first and 
bade Leisler surrender the city. Leisler refused and 
a fight took place, in which some soldiers were killed. 



1691] NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 105 

The next day Governor Sloughter arrived, and Leisler, 
deserted by his party, was arrested, found guilty of 
treason and hanged. This uncalled for severity was 
bitterly resented by the popular party, which long 
afterwards continued to oppose the rulers.^ 

206. Later Events. — At this time the seas were infested 
with pirates, who became very bold and daring. Gov- 
ernor Fletcher was suspected of aiding them, but 
Governor Bellamont, who succeeded him, determined 
to suppress them, and sent out a strong ship under 
Captain "William Kidd for this purpose. As it proved, 
Captain Kidd turned pirate himself and grew famous 
through his depredations. He was seized at length 
and was hanged in London in 1701. After this period 
New York developed quietly, the people advancing 
in the right of self government. For a long time 
there was a contest between the governors and the 
people, but the latter steadily gained strength. 

NEW JERSEY 

207. The New Jersey Country. — The New York region 
was not the whole of New Netherland. The country 
now known as New Jersey, south of the Hudson and 
between the ocean and Delaware Bay and river, was 
also claimed by the Dutch and partly settled. They 
had crossed the Hudson and founded a trading post 
at Bergen about 1618-, and soon afterwards sailed up 

^ Leisler had opposed Ingoldsby because the latter could show 
no authority for his action. Sloughter did not intend to execute 
him, but Leisler's enemies made the new governor drunk at a 
dinner party, got him to sign the death warrant while in this state, 
and hung Leisler before the governor became sober. 



106 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1681 

the Delaware and built a fort on the site of Camden. 
This they named Fort Nassau — the old Fort Nassau, 
at Albany, having been replaced by Fort Orange. 

208. The New Proprietors. — When the Duke of York 
seized New Netherland he granted the region here 
spoken of to two of his friends, Lord Berkeley and Sir 
George Carteret. It was named New Jersey by Car- 
teret after the island of Jersey, in the English Chan- 
nel, of which he had been governor. Liberal terms 
were offered and settlers came, Elizabethtown and 
Newark being early founded. 

209. Berkeley's Province. — While Carteret held the 
eastern section, that of Berkeley lay in the southwest, 
and here there arose so many disputes with earlier 
settlers that in 1G74 he sold his share of the province 
to two Quakers named Byllinge and Fenwick. William 
Penn, the famous Quaker who was to become pro- 
prietor of Pennsylvania soon after, bought B3dlinge's 
share in 1677, in company with some others of his 
faith. Salem and Burlington were founded and the 
Indians were paid for the land taken. In 1681 Penn 
and his company of Friends bought East Jersey from 
the heirs of Carteret, so that they now controlled the 
whole province. It was the first step taken to make 
a place of refuge in America for the persecuted Quakers. 

210. The Usurpation of Andres. — When Edmund 
Andros was made governor of New York he claimed 
New Jersey also, disregarding the rights of the pro- 
prietors. An assembly met at Salem in 1681 and made 
a code of laws, but trouble began again when James 
II. became king and Andros was once more appointed 
governor. Finally the proprietors, weary of the quar- 



1638] 



PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 



107 



rcls, surrendered their claim to the crown, and New 
Jersey was made a royal province under the governor 
of New York. In 1738 it was separated from New 
York and given a governor of its own. 



5. PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 

211. Along the Delaware. — While flourishing settle- 
ments were being made in the north and the south, 
the fertile and promising mid-region, that traversed 
by Delaware River and Bay, was greatly neglected. 
The settlement of New Jersey, as has just been shown, 
proceeded very slowly, and the same was the case with 
the regions lying west of the Delaware. 

212. The First Settlers. — In 1611 Lord Delaware, then 
governor of Virginia, took refuge in the bay during a 
severe storm, and from this his name has been given to 
the stream which the 

Dutch called the 
South River, and to 
the bay into which it 
flows. A small Dutch 
colony was planted 
near the site of Lewies, 
at Cape Henlopen, at 
an early date, but its 
people got into a quar- 
rel with the Indians 
and were swept away. 

Shortly afterwards some Swedes came over and occu- 
pied the same region and in 1638 the King of Sweden 
sent over a colony, which paid the Indians for the 
land and settled at various points along the river, 
naming the country New Sweden. 




Copyright 1908 by W. H. Kau. 

Interior of Old Swedes Church, Phila. 



108 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1665 



213. The Dutch on the Delaware. — The Dutch at 
New Amsterdam did not like to see the Swedes taking 
possession of a region which they claimed as their 
own, and in 1655 Peter Stuyvesant sent a body of 
soldiers to the Delaware, who took possession of the 
Swedish settlements. The Swedes remained, but now 
under Dutch rule. Finally, in 1665, after New Amster- 
dam had been taken b}' the English, the country on 
the Delaware was claimed for the Duke of York. 




( ()I)\riirht I'liri, li\ \ i(il( t o.iklej Iroiii ( oplo.v Print, ( oiiyright liKttJ by Curtis A Company. 
Pexn's Vision of a Land of Freedom. 



214. William Penn. — Up to 1680 no very active effort 
was made to settle this promising countr3\ Its final 
settlement was due to William Penn, a leader among 
the Friends, or Quakers as they wer^ commonly 
called, a sect which, in spite of persecution, had then 
become numerous in England. As we have seen, they 
were persecuted in America as well as in England, and 
needed a place where they might dwell in peace. 
New Jerse}' was bought for them by Penn and others, 



1681] 



PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 



109 



but the governor of New York troubled them there 
and Penn wanted a region under his own control 
where those of his faith could dwell in peace. 

215. Penn's Woodland, — William Penn was the son of 
an English admiral, to whom the government had 
owed a large sum of money. As the king, Charles II., 
did not seem likely to pay this money, and as Penn 
had joined the Society of Friends and wanted to help 
them, he asked the king to dispose of his father's 
claim by granting him 
some land in America. 
King Charles was quite 
ready to pay his debts 
by giving away prop- 
erty which he did not 
own, so, in 1681, he 
made Penn proprietor 
of a great tract of land 
lying west of the Dela- 
ware river, to which 
he gave the name of 
Pennsylvania, a title equivalent to "Penn's Wood- 
land." The Duke of York, who was friendly to 
William Penn, added the region now known as 
Delaware to the grant. 

216. The Pennsylvania Charter. — A charter was given 
to Penn, but it was less liberal than those given to the 
New England colonies. Laws might be passed by the 
Assembly, but they must ])e approved by the king, 
who also retained the right to lay a tax on the province 
— which he never did. By way of quitrent the king 
claimed from Penn two beaver-skins annually and one- 
fifth of all the gold and silver the region might yield. 




Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. 



no 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



U682 



217. The Coming of Settlers. — Settlers soon came in 
numbers. Before the first year passed nearly thirty 
vessels laden with emigrants reached the new province. 
Penn came himself in 1682 in the ship Welcome, 
bringing with him a hundred English Friends to found 
a city the site of which had already been chosen. 

218. The City of Philadelphia. — A desirable piece of 
land lying between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers 
was selected for this city, and given the name of 




Penn's LANniNG AT EssEX HousE, Chester. 



Philadelphia, "or Brotherly Love." The streets were 
to be broad and to cross each other at right angles, 
and those running from river to river Penn decided 
to name after the trees of the forest. So to-day we 
find there such names of streets as Chestnut, Walnut, 
Spruce, Pine, etc. 

219. The Great Law. — Landing at a Swedish village 
called Upland, to which Penn gave the name of 
Chester, he called together an assembly of the 



16831 



PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 



111 



people then in the land and passed what he called. 
"The Great Law" for the government of the colony. 
The terms of this law were very liberal. Its religious 
features were nearly as broad as those of Rhode 
Island. Every person could worship God as he pleased 
though only believers in Christ could vote or hold 
office. The people were free to make their own laws, 
and no man could be put to death except for murder 




Tbeaty Elm on the Delaware. 



or treason. At that time there were dozens of crimes 
for which people could be hung in England. Each 
prison was to be made a workshop and place of refor- 
mation, then a new idea in prison management. 

220. The Land Purchased. — From Upland Penn pro- 
ceeded to Philadelphia, where he found the settlers 
already busy in building themselves homes. A few 
Swedes had settled on the site of the new city and 
to these he paid fair prices for their property. As 



112 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1684 



for the true proprietors, the Indians, he called them 
together and agreed to pay them for all the land he 
needed. It is said that a council was held with them 
under a great elm tree near the city and a treaty made. 
During the many years of Quaker rule in Philadelphia 
Penn's agreement with the Indians was faithfully 
kept. Voltaire has said: ''This was the only treaty 
never sworn to and never broken." 

221. The Colony Grows Rapidly. — No hardship came 
to the first settlers, as in several other colonies. People 
came in numbers, attracted by the liberal laws, the 

cheapness and fertility 
of the land, and the 
absence of persecution. 
Pennsylvania grew 
more rapidly than any 
other colony had 
grown. When Penn 
returned to England 
in 1684 there were 
already three hundred 
houses in Philadelphia and seven thousand people in 
the colony. Among these was a considerable party 
of Germans, who bought a large tract of land and 
settled a place called Germantown, now included in 
Philadelpliia. Many Welsh Friends also came and 
took up lands near the city. 

222. Penn in Trouble. — Though Penn's colony thus 
grew prosperous and flourishing, many troubles awaited 
him. In 1692 his province was taken from him on 
account of his friendship for James IT, the king who 
had recently been driven from England. It was soon 




Letitia House, Philadelphia. 
Erected for William Penn. 



1699] MARYLAND 113 

restored to him, but new troubles were to come. He 
visited Philadelphia again in 1699, found it quite a 
large city for that day, and gave its people a new 
constitution, still more liberal than the old one. But 
he found it difficult to collect his rents from them and 
fell so deeply in debt that he had to mortgage his 
province to raise money. In the end he was im- 
prisoned for debt. He died in 1718, leaving the 
province to his sons. They derived much more benefit 
from it than he had ever done. 

223. The Delaware Province. — Though the Duke of 
York had added to Penn's grant the regions which be- 
came known as 'Hhe three Lower Counties on the Dela- 
ware," they were never closely united to Pennsyl- 
vania. Their people early became dissatisfied and 
withdrew from the union. Governor Fletcher, of New 
New York, who governed the country during Penn's 
brief removal, reunited them to Pennsylvania in 1693. 
But other disputes arose and in 1703 Penn gave 
Delaware an assembly of its own, though it remained 
under the governor of Pennsylvania. This was the 
state of affairs until 1776, when Delaware was made a 
separate state. 

6. MARYLAND 

224. Religious Liberty. — We have seen how much the 
desire for freedom of worship had to do with the set- 
tling of America. It was this that brought the Pilgrims 
and the Puritans to New England and which led to the 
settling of Rhode Island. It was this that brought 
William Penn and the Friends to Pennsylvania. 
And it was this that brought the Catholics to Mary- 
land — though they did not long enjoy there the 
liberty they sought. 



114 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1634 

225. Lord Baltimore. — George Calvert, Lord Balti- 
more, a Catholic nobleman who was greatly dis- 
satisfied with the ill-treatment given to Catholics in 
England, early formed the idea of founding a home 
for them in the New World. He first tried New- 
foundland, but found the climate there too severe. 
He then sailed to Jamestown, but soon learned that 
his people would not be welcomed by the Protestants 
of that locality. Then he made his way up Chesapeake 
Bay, and found an unsettled country north of the 
Potomac, with which he was delighted. 

226. The Maryland Province. — On his return to Eng- 
land Lord Baltimore applied to the king, Charles I., 
for a grant of land on the North Chesapeake and 
readily obtained it. Charles was so friendly to him 
that he named the proposed colony Maryland in honor 
of his queen Henrietta Maria, and gave Lord Balti- 
more the greatest authority ever granted to a colonizer. 
There was conferred upon him the title of "Lord 
Proprietary of Maryland," and he was authorized to 
coin money, select judges, appoint noblemen, and 
nominate or have elected an assembly that could 
make laws without asking the king's approval. The 
governor and assembly were also granted the sole 
right to lay taxes on the people. He was virtually 
made an independent ruler. 

227. St. Mary's Settled. — George Calvert died before 
the charter was made out, and his son Cecilius, the 
second Lord Baltimore, became Lord Proprietary. 
He sent out his brother Leonard in 1034 with about 
three hundred people, who founded the town of St. 
Mary's, on the Potomac near its mouth. The Indians 



1645] MARYLAND 115 

who lived there sold their land to the new settlers and 
taught them how to plant and raise corn, so that they 
did not suffer from hunger or Indian hostility. 

228. Freedom of Worship. — As in Rhode Island and 
Pennsylvania, religious liberty was decreed here, all 
Christians being made citizens of the colony. The 
combination of political and religious freedom was a 
great attraction, and settlers came in numbers, many 
of them Protestants. Tobacco was raised with profit, 
grain was grown in the interior, and several towns were 
founded, so that Maryland was soon in a prosperous 
condition. 

229. The Clayborne Claim. — Trouble came to the colony 
through a Virginian named William Clayborne, who 
had formed a fur-trading post on Kent Island in 
Chesapeake Bay. This was within the limits of Mary- 
land, but Clayborne refused to acknowledge the author- 
ity of the Calverts. This led to a quarrel and fight in 
which he was defeated and driven from his island. 

230. Colonial Warfare. — Clayborne came back in 1645, 
about ten years later. By that time many Puritans 
had settled in the colony, and the turbulent Virginian 
stirred these up to attack the Catholics. For two 
years after that a state of war prevailed in Maryland 
and the governor was forced to flee. He returned in 
1G46 and Clayborne was once more driven from the col- 
ony. In 1654 the trouble began again and a battle was 
fought near the site of 'Annapolis, in which Clayborne 
and the Puritans were victorious. An assembly was 
convened, which repealed the act granting freedom 
of worship and prohibited Catholic worship in Mary- 
land. 



116 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1691 



231. Cromwell's Decision. — As will be seen, those to 
whom Lord Baltimore had given homes and freedom 
in ^Maryland became his enemies. Fortunately for him, 
Cromwell, then in powder in England, saw the justice 
of his claim and in 165S restored to him his province. 
Freedom of worship was also re-established and for 
many years peace and prosperity prevailed. 

232. The Protestants in Power.— In 1689, after William 
III. came to the throne, severe laws were passed against 
the Catholics and the Protestants became masters in 

Maryland, the Cal verts being again 
deprived of their province. Mary- 
hind was declared a royal province 
in 1691, the Catholic worship was for- 
l)idden, and the Church of England 
was given precedence. St. Mary's 
ceased to be the seat of government, 
Annapolis taking its place. Like 
Jamestown in Virginia, St. Mary's in 
time- was deserted, and hardly a 
trace of it now exists. 

233. The Cal verts Return to Power. 
— Once again, in 1715, the rule of 
the Calverts was restored, under the 
fourth Lord Baltimore. But he had 
become a Protestant, so there was 
no religious change and the old free- 
dom of worship was at an end. The Calverts continued 
in power until 1776. 

234. The Mason and Dixon Line. — A dispute having 
arisen as to the boundary between Pennsylvania and 
Marj'land, two English surveyors named Mason and 




One of the Five-Mile 
Stones Marking the 
Mason and Dixon Line 
(from photograph of orig- 
inal in possession of Mary- 
land Historical Society). 



1763] CAROLINA AND GEORGIA 117 

Dixon were sent out in 1763 to establish the true 
boundary. They ran a line due west from the north- 
east corner of Maryland for nearly three hundred 
miles, setting up at every fifth mile a stone with the 
arms of William Penn on the north and those of Lord 
Baltimore on the south. In after years Mason and 
Dixon's line became famous as the dividing line between 
the free and the slave states. 

7. CAROLINA AND GEORGIA 

235. The English Field of Settlement. — It has been 
shown in previous chapters how the English people 
gradually took possession of the Atlantic coast of the 
present United States during the seventeenth century. 
There was one large part of the coast, however, to 
which little attention was paid in the early period, 
that between the English settlement of Virginia and 
the Spanish settlement of Florida. Here, a settle- 
ment was made before that of Pennsylvania. 

236. Settlers in Carolina. — The first white men to 
reach this section of the country — after the unfortu- 
nate Huguenots of a century before — were some 
farmers and others who strayed southward from 
Virginia. About this time Charles II., a profligate 
English king, was giving away land in America very 
freely. As we have seen, he gave the Dutch settle- 
ment of New Netherland to his brother, the Duke of 
York; Pennsylvania to William Penn; Virginia to 
two of his companions. Lords Culpepper and Arlington; 
and he .also gave the great tract south of Virginia to 
eight noblemen, Lords Clarendon, Albemarle and 
others. This grant was made in 1663. 



118 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1(570 

237. Several Colonies Formed. — These people had no 
thought of settling the land themselves, like William 
Penn. All they wished was to gain profit from it. 
They were given a very liberal charter, in which relig 
ious freedom to colonists was assured, and this helped 
to bring settlers. The people already there were 
formed into a colony named Albemarle, and some 
settlers from the West Indies formed another colony 
named Clarendon. Further south a settlement was 
made in 1670 on the banks of Ashley River. Ten 
years later it was moved to a location between the 
Ashley and Cooper rivers, which was named Charles- 
town, after the king. It is now the city of Charleston. 

238. Naming the Country. — When the Huguenots had 
settled on the southern coast a century earlier they 
called their settlement Carolina, after Charles IX. of 
France. The new proprietors adopted the same name, 
now applying it to Charles II. of England. The word 
Carolus (Latin for Charles) was the source of this name. 

239. A Refuge from Persecution. — The religious liberty 
offered settlers had the good effect of bringing to the 
new province persecuted Christians from several 
countries. These included many Huguenots, fleeing 
from persecution in France, and a large number of 
Germans from the Palatinate, a German province which 
had been invaded and desolated by French armies. 
Later there came many Scotch-Irish and Highlanders, 
and also some Dutch from New York, dissatisfied with 
English rule. 

240. A New Constitution.— Though religious liberty 
was granted in Carolina, political liberty was forbidden. 
The eight proprietaries, seeking a form of government 



1693] CAROLINA AND GEORGIA 119 

for their province, applied to John Locke, an eminent 
Enghsh philosopher, to make them a constitution. 
Ignorant of the conditions of settlement in a wilder- 
ness, he drafted a plan which became known as the 
"Grand Model," which he and the company looked 
upon as a splendid piece of work, but which the people 
of the colony justly regarded as a scheme to reduce 
them to slavery. 

241. The Grand Model. — The Grand Model scheme 
arranged for a nobility of landholders, — lords, earls, 
barons, etc. — but it made slaves of the poorer people, 
who were not allowed to vote or to hold land, and 
could not even leave the plantation they worked on 
without permission. And their children were to be 
held in the same servitude. 

242. The People Revolt. — Though the proprietaries 
thought the Grand Model admirable, the people thought 
it abominable. When an attempt was made to put it 
into effect, the people refused to submit to its absurd 
provisions. For twenty years a state of rebellion 
existed, during which governors were driven out and 
others chosen by the people. Heavy taxes had been 
laid, but these it was found difficult to collect. In the 
end the people won and in 1693 the Grand Model was 
abandoned. It was one of those supposed perfect 
pieces of machinery which will not work. 

243. Carolina Divided. — In those days of poor roads 
and slow travel Carolina was too large for one colony. 
Members of the assembly could not easily reach a single 
capital, so it became necessary to have two capital 
cities and two assembhes. Usually, also, there were 
two governors. There was little peace and quiet in 



120 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1729 



Carolina until 1G95, when John Archdale, a Quaker, 
was sent out to govern both sections of the colony. 
He was just, honest and sensible and the troubles 
ceased. The taxes were reduced, the people given the 
right to vote, and prosperity came to the region. 

244. A Royal Province. — In later years, under new 
governors, the old dissension returned, and there were 
so many complaints and so much disturbance that the 

proprieta- 
ries grew 
weary of 
the strife, 
and i n 
1729 sold 
out their 
claims to 
the gov- 
ernment. 
Carolina was now form- 
all}^ divided into two 
colonies, which were 
given the names of North 
Carolina and South Caro- 
lina, these being made 
royal provinces. 

245. Sources of Prosperity. — The Carolinas grew 
slowly. The people of North Carolina were poor and 
scattered, depending largely on the production of 
pitch, tar and turpentine from their widespread pine 
woods. South Carolina did much better after 1693, 
when a bag of rice was brought to Charleston by a 
vessel from Madagascar and i)lante(l as an experi- 




The Carolinas and Georgia. 



1711] CAROLINA AND GEORGIA 121 

ment. It did so well that the culture of rice was begun 
and became very profitable. Indigo, which was planted 
in 1743, also proved a valuable crop, and the popula- 
tion grew with some rapidity. 

246. The Tuscarora Indians. — Few of the colonies in 
those days escaped trouble with the Indians, the true 
owners of the soil, who naturally viewed with doubt 
and hostility the coming of the whites, feeling that 
they were being crowded from their native lands. 
In North Carolina was a powerful tribe called the 
Tuscaroras, a section of the Iroquois family of New 
York, the strongest and most warlike of Indian con- 
federacies. With those hostile relations arose. 

247. Massacre and War. — Enraged by the encroach- 
ments of the whites, the Tuscaroras suddenly attacked 
the settlers and in one night in 1711 killed one hundred 
and thirty of them. Their murderous work could not 
be checked until a strong party of whites and friendly 
Indians from South Carolina came to the aid of the 
settlers and drove back their foes. In the next year 
they broke out again, but this time were so thoroughly 
defeated that they left the country and made their 
way north to join their brother tribes in New York. 
These, formerly called the "Five Nations," were after- 
wards known as the "Six Nations." 

248. The Region South of the Savannah. — The south- 
ern part of the Carolina grant, that l3nng south of the 
Savannah River, was the latest portion of the coast to 
attract settlers. It was a dangerous district, for the 
Spaniards of Florida laid claim to it, and their nearness 
made it unsafe for settlers. Not until after Carolina 
became a royal province was an attempt made to 



122 



THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 



[1732 



colonize the section, and this had to be done in force, 
for a colony in that region needed to be a sort of mili- 
tary outpost. 

249. Oglethorpe and the Debtors. — At that time 
imprisonment for debt was so common in England that 
some of the prisons in London were filled with poor 
debtors, who were unjustly and 
often cruelly treated. This was 
observed by General James 
Oglethorpe, who felt such pity 
for the unhappy prisoners that 
he proposed to pay the debts of 
some of the most deserving, 
transport them and their families 
to America, and give them a new 
start in life. 

250. Savannah Founded. — In 
1732 George II., a new king of 
England, gave Oglethorpe a grant of this district, 
and in the following year a company of released 
debtors was taken out and settled near the mouth 
of the river forming the southern boundary of South 
Carolina, the settlement and river being named 
Savannah, a Spanish word meaning the same as 
prairie, or treeless plain. Oglethorpe went with them, 
and for a year lived in a tent, set up under four pine 
trees. A man of justice and discretion, he paid the In- 
dians for the land taken, and treated them so well that 
they continued friendly. 

251. Georgia and Its Progress. — Oglethorpe named his 
colony Georgia, after the king. Other settlers soon 
followed the debtors, some of them persecuted Protes- 




Oglethorpe. 



1752] CAROLINA AND GEORGIA 123 

tants from Germany, some of them oppressed Scotch 
Highlanders. Rice and indigo were planted, a brisk 
trade arose in lumber, and the silk industry was started, 
though it did not prove profitable. 

252. Unjust Laws. — A ready-made constitution was 
given this colony, as had been done in the case of the 
Carolinas. It did not work any better than the Grand 
Model. The people were not allowed to govern them- 
selves, and no Roman Cathohcs were permitted to 
enter the colony. Women, since they could not serve 
as soldiers, were not allowed to own land, and men 
could own very little. Slavery was prohibited. 

253. Georgia a Royal Province. — Georgia was sur- 
rendered to the crown in 1752, and was afterwards a 
royal province. This was due to discontent with the 
laws that prohibited the importation of rum from the 
West Indies and negroes from Africa, and also those 
regarding land holding. So many complaints were 
made that the trustees of the colony were glad to get 
rid of it, and not until the unsatisfactory laws were 
repealed did the colony prosper. 

254. War with the Spaniards. — As was expected, 
the Spaniards of Florida were hostile to this settle- 
ment. In 1742 they invaded it with a large fleet and 
a powerful army, landing on St. Simon's Island and 
proposing to take Oglethorpe's forts and conquer or 
desolate the colony. Oglethorpe's force was much 
weaker, but by a shrewd stratagem he frightened the 
enemy and caused them to withdraw in panic flight. 
In the following year Oglethorpe repeated his attack 
on St. Augustine. As before, he failed to take it, but 
his vigor put an end to 'Spanish invasions. 



124 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 

SUMMARY OF EVENTS. 

1607. The first successful English colony was founded at James- 
town, "\'irginia, by a company of settlers who owed their success 
largely to Captain John Smith. The cultivation of tobacco brought 
prosperity to the colony, and in 1619 it was permitted to make 
its own laws. Leading events were Indian outbreaks in 1622 and 
1644, and an insurrection against a tyrannical governor in 1675, 
known as Bacon's Rebellion. 

1609. Henry Hudson, in the service of Holland, sailed up the 
river bearing his name, and the Dutch colony of New Xetherland 
was formed, embracing the country from the Connecticut River 
to the mouth of Delaware Bay. This region was taken from the 
Dutch by the English in 1664 and named Xew York after the 
Duke of York, its new proprietor. Xew Jersey was part of the 
Duke of York's claim, and was given to two of his friends, who sold 
it to a company of English Quakers. It was made a ro3'al province 
in 1702, and was separated from Xew York in 1738. 

1620. The Pilgrims, an oppressed religious sect from England, 
settled Plymouth in 1620, and the Puritans, another sect, settled 
Boston in 1630, both seeking freedom of worship. The Puritans 
were \evy intolerant, drove out Roger Williams, who settled Rhode 
Island in 1636, persecuted the Quakers who came to Boston, and 
hung many people for witchcraft in 1692. King Philip, an Indian 
chief, began war against them in 1675, but was defeated and 
killed. ]\Iaine, X'ew Hampshire and Connecticut were settled, and 
very liberal charters were given to Connecticut and Rhode Island, 
which Sir Edmund Andros sought to take from them in 1687. 

1634. Lord Baltimore sent a colony of Roman Catholics to 
America, who settled in Maryland. William Clayborne, a Vir- 
ginian, joined with Puritan settlers, brought civil war into the 
colony and overthrew the government. INIaryland was made a 
royal province in 1691 and the Catholic worship forbidden. It 
was restored to the Baltimores in 1715, the then Lord Baltimore 
being a Protestant. 

1638. A Swedish colony settled on the Delaware River and 
named the country west of the river and bay X'ew Sweden. Their 
colony was captured by the Dutch in 1654, and was seized for the 



SUMMARY OF EVENTS 125 

Duke of York in 1665. In 1681 it was granted by Charles I. to 
William Penn, who founded Philadelphia in 1682, gave the people 
political and religious liberty and formed the most flourishing 
colony in America. Pennsylvania and Delaware were combined 
under one governor until the Revolution. 

1663. The Carolina country was granted to eight noblemen, 
who founded colonies in the north in 1663 and 1664 and in the south 
in 1670, the latter becoming the city of Charleston. An oppres- 
sive government was formed. This the people would not yield to 
and political freedom was gained. The cultivation of rice and 
indigo made the colony prosperous. In 1729 it was made a royal 
province and di\'ided into North and South Carolina. 

1733. The Georgia country was granted to James Oglethorpe 
in 1732, and a colony of debtors from English prisons was formed 
there in 1733. Many Germans and Scotch came to the country, and 
the growth of rice and indigo brought prosperity. The Spanish from 
Florida invaded the country in 1742, but were defeated. In 1752 
Georgia was made a royal pro\'ince. 

TOPICS FOR RE\^EW. 

Oral or written composition. 

1. The Aborigines of America. — Their personal appearance-^ 
social condition — occupations — homes — their tools and weapons — 
clothing — furniture and cooking utensils — means of travel — their 
government — religion — the Mound Builders, Pueblos, and Chff- 
Dwellers. 

2. Struggle for Supremacy ix America. — The European nations 
engaged — what each did — what each claimed — conflicting claims — the 
settlers of Virginia — Pilgrims and Puritans — Dutch and English in 
New York — Wilham Penn's colony — other settlements. 

referenxe books. 
1. Doyle's The English in America. 2. Fisk's Old Virginia and 
Her Neighbors. 3. Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies. 4. Fisher's 
Colonial Period. 5. Lodge's English Colonies. 6. Fisher's The Mak- 
ing of Penn.^ylvania. 7. Robert's New York. 8. Cooke's Virginia. 
9. Scharfs Maryland. 10. f^oore's North Carolina. 11. Jones's Georgia. 



PART IV. 

THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 



1. KING WILLIAM'S WAR (1689-1697) 

255. Rival Settlers in America. — The English colonists 
in America had more to contend with than the diffi- 
culties and perils laid by nature in their path. War 
came to add to these perils. Their contests with the 
Indians have been described in former pages, but they 
had European rivals, the Spaniards in the south and 
the French in the north and west, who were ready to 
fight for the possession of the country. As a result 
severe and sanguinary wars ensued, 

256. War in Europe and the Colonies. — In 1689, war 
broke out between England and France in Europe and 
its effects were immediately felt in the colonies. Count 
Frontcnac, an old but able man, was appointed 
governor of Canada by the French king and ordered 
to descend the Hudson and capture New York, For- 
tunately for the English, they had allies in the region 
to b3 traversed, the Iroquois Indians, who had bit- 
terly hated the French ever since their defeat by 
Champlain eighty years before. They now attacked 
Montreal and gave the French so much to do at home 
that the proposed invasion was given up. 

257. The Massacre of Settlers. — All that Frontenac 
was able to do was to send out raiding parties of French 
and Indians, whose work was confined to brutal but 
useless slaughter of English settlers. The village of 

126 



1690] 



KING WILLIAM'S WAR 



127 



Schenectady, in New York, was attacked at midnight 
in February, 1690, and nearly all its people were 
killed, a few escaping in their night clothes and making 
their way to Albany, sixteen miles away. In the fol- 
lowing years several villages in New England were 
similarly treated, more than a hundred people being 
slain at Durham, New Hampshire, in 1694. All along 




The Attack on Haverhill. 

the border similar needless and frightful massacres 
prevailed, though not without some reprisals. In the 
attack on Haverhill, Massachusetts, a Mrs. Hannah 
Dusti^i was taken captive. She turned on her captors 
and, with the aid of another woman and a boy, killed 
them all while they slept, returning in triumph with 
ten gory scalps. 

258. The English Invade Canada. — While the French 
were thus enhsting the Indians in their aid, the northern 



128 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1697 

colonies joined in naval and military expeditions against 
Canada, a naval force being sent from Boston against 
Acadia and Quebec and a military force from New York 
and Connecticut against Montreal. They both proved 
failures, the land force not even reaching Canada. 

259. The French and Iroquois. — The only event of 
actual military importance in this war was an attack 
made by Frontenac upon the Iroquois, who had 
frustrated his attempt upon New York by their inva- 
sion of Canada. Assailing them in their own country, 
he wrought such havoc there that, after four years of 
war (1093-97), the proud Iroquois were forced to beg 
for mercy and their military power was greatly reduced. 

2. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR (1702-1713) 

260. A Second War. — Peace returned to America with 
the close of the war in Europe in 1G97, but a second 
war broke out in the reign of Queen Anne, which 
continued for twelve years and was attended in 
America by the same useless slaughter of helpless 
villagers as before. Deerfield and Haverhill, in Massa- 
chusetts, were attacked by parties of French and 
Indians, and many of their people slain or carried 
into captivity. 

261. Acadia Conquered. — On the English side Port 
Royal and Acadia were occupied and were retained 
by the conquerors after the war, the name of Port 
Royal being changed to Annapolis, in honor of the 
English c^ueen. An expedition was also sent against 
Quebec, but it was checked by a violent storm at the 
mouth of the St. Lawrence, many of the ships being 
destroyed and a thousand men drowned. 



1744] KING GEORGE'S WAR 129 

262. War in the South. — Spain was allied with France 
in this war, and in 1702 an expedition from South 
Carolina took and plundered St. Augustine, while in 
1703 the Indian allies of the Spanish were severely 
punished. Three years later a combined fleet of 
French and Spanish vessels attacked Charleston, but 
they were repulsed with heavy loss. 

263. An Indian Invasion. — One of the greatest Indian 
wars in the South took place at the end of this period. 
A confederation of the tribes was formed in 1715 
with the purpose of sweeping all the whites into the 
sea. Seven thousand Indians marched upon South 
Carolina, but they were met by Governor Craven 
with twelve hundred men and completely defeated. 

3. KING GEORGE'S WAR (1744-174S) 

264. Years of Peace and Growth. — During the thirty 
years that followed Queen Anne's War, peace prevailed 
and the colonies grew in numbers and strength. The 
EngHsh settlements extended more deeply into the 
interior and the French added to their line of fortified 
posts along the lakes and the Mississippi, and founded 
the city of New Orleans. In 1743, during the reign 
of George II., war again broke out in Europe, and as 
before extended to America. 

265. The Fortress of Louisburg. — This war was not 
attended with the Indian massacres of the preceding 
ones, but it was marked by an event of more military 
importance, the capture of Louisburg. This, a sea- 
port on Cape Breton Island, had been fortified by the 
French at an expense of five million dollars, and was 
thought strong enough to defy any assault. Yet it 

9 



13G THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1745 

was taken by a force of four thousand New England 
militia, aided by four English warships. 

266. Louisburg in British Hands. — The expedition 
against this powerful fortress, with its walls of solid 
masonry, thirty feet thick, was composed of farmers 
and fishermen, led by a militia officer, Colonel William 
Peppcrell of Maine. It seemed so hopeless a scheme 
that Benjamin Franklin, with all his trust in American 
daring, said that Louisburg was far too hard a nut 
for their teeth to crack. Yet after a six weeks' siege 
the great fort fell, on June 17, 1745, much to the 
surprise of Europe and the consternation of France, 
but greatly to the delight cf Boston, which had 
supplied most of the funds for the expedition. 

267. The Cause of the Victory. — The victory was due 
less to military science than to the dash and courage 
of the assailants, and was greatly aided by the 
weakness of the garrison and the incompetence of 
the commander. It is of interest to state that the 
drums that beat the triumphal march as the victors 
marched into Louisburg on June 17, 1745, were the 
same that beat at Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775, exactly 
thirty years later. 

268. The Fortress Restored. — A powerful expedition 
was sent by France the next year for the recapture 
of the fortress, but it failed through injury to the 
fleet by storms and weakening of the troops by sick- 
ness. At the end of the war, however, Louisburg was 
restored to France in exchange for Madras in India, 
which France had taken from England during the war. 
The New Englanders, who had spent large sums in 
equipping their expedition, were furious when the 



1750] 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 



131 



prize of their valor was thus traded for a heathen 
city thousands of miles away, especially as Louisburg 
had been a nest of French privateers which preyed 
upon the fishing craft of the colonies. 

4. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754-1763) 

269. A Critical Period. — We have now reached a critical 
period in American history, one of leading importance, 
as in it was to be deter- 
mined whether France or 
England should be the 
dominant power in North 
America. The wars so far 
mentioned were side 
issues, in which the col- 
onies had no real interest, 
and into which they 
should not have been 
drawn. But a war was 
about to come that origi- 
nated in America, and in 
the outcome of which the 
later history of the 
United States was deeply 
involved. This was the 
bitter contest that be- 
came known in history 
as the French and In- 
dian War. 

270. Conflicting Claims. — For nearly a century and a 
half the colonies of England and France had been 
extending in America, the English along the coast and 




132 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 



[1750 



the French along the St. Lawrence and the Great 
Lakes and down the Mississippi to the Gulf. Though 
the latter lay within the region claimed by the English, 
they paid no attention to it, and the colonists of each 
nation pursued their course undisturbed until the 
expansion of the English settlements westward and the 
movements of the French towards the v^alley of the 
Ohio brought them almost into contact. By 1750 a 
contest for the possession of this rich domain had 
become next to inevitable. 




Colonial Territory before the French and Indian War. 

271. The Advance of the Rivals.— The French had far 
the easier route to the interior, that of the splendid 
waterways of the St. Lawrence, the lakes, and the 
Mississippi, and had pushed their way westward and 
southward until they had more than sixty military 
posts along the lakes and the river. The English, 



1750] THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 133 

on the contrary, faced an unbroken wilderness, backed 
by a broad mountain region, and their expansion west- 
ward was one of hardship and difficulty. Farther 
north, where the country was more open, the warlike 
Iroquois closed the path. AYhile friendly to the 
English, they were jealous of intrusion. 

272. The Ohio Valley. — Such was the state of affairs 
when the middle of the eighteenth century approached. 
The rich valley of the Ohio was the battle ground 
towards which the vanguard of each army of inva- 
sion was directed. Here the two forces were certain 
before many years to come into hostile contact. Both 
France and England claimed this untrodden region. 
France by right of La Salle's discoveries, England by 
a claim based on the voyages of the Cabots, under 
which charters had been granted to the Pacific' 

273. The Ohio Company. — The Engfish were the first 
to move towards the Ohio. Their outposts had reached 
the mountains, and prospectors had crossed these to 
the western country, from which they brought back 
alluring stories of its wealth and fertilit}'. In 1748 
an association was formed for the purpose of settling 
this rich region. This, called the Ohio Company, 
obtained from the king a grant of half a million acres 
of land in the Ohio valley. Among its stockholders 
were Lawrence and Augustine Washington, elder 
brothers of the afterward famous George Washington. 

* No thought was given to the rights of the real owners of the 
region, the Indians. "Where is our land?" they asked. "The 
English claim all on one side of the river, the French all on the other. 
Where does the land of the Indian lie ?" To this plaintive demand 
there was no reply save that of the rifle and the cannon. 



134 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 



[1753 



m, Otm i» »"l 



274. The French Build Forts.— In 1750 the Ohio Com- 
pany sent out surveyors, whose work extended down 
the banks of the Ohio as far as the site of Louisville. 
These movements alarmed the French, who felt that 
if active steps were not taken they would lose the 
Ohio country. They at once began their favorite 
occupation of building forts. One was built at Crown 
Point on Lake Champlain, to control the pass through 
the mountains by way of the eastern 
_jhJn^tiL2=^^^!^^Zji lakes. Farther west, a fort was built 
at Presque Isle on Lake Erie; a second 
at Le Bceuf, on French Creek, south of 
the lake; and a third at Venango, on 
the Alleghany River, at the mouth of 
French Creek. These were steps on 
the way towards the upper waters of 
the Ohio. 

275. Governor Dinwiddie Takes Action, 
— Governor Dinwiddie, of Virginia^ 
who was interested in the Ohio Com- 
pany, took quick alarm. Unless the 
advance of the French w^as checked the 
interests of this company would be 
imperilled. Its surveyors had already been seized by 
the French and a British outpost on the Miami 
destroyed. In 1753 he sent a messenger to the French 
forts to order their removal from what he claimed as 
Virginian territory. He chose for this mission a 
young man then only twenty-one years of age, 
too young, as would seem, for a mission that 
seemed to demand the experience and discretion of a 
mature man. 






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Copy of Pen- 
manship BY WHICH 
Washington 's 
Handwriting was 
Formed. 



1753] THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 135 

276. Washington's Mission to the French.— The young 
envoy, George Washington by name/ was in several 
respects well fitted for the task before him. He was 
familiar with Indian ways, and versed in woodcraft. 
Youth and strength were needed, for there lay before 
him a journey of over a thousand miles through the 
unbroken wilderness. Discretion and judgment were 
necessary, for he had to deal alike with Indian chiefs 
and French officers, and to learn what the French 
were doing and proposed to do. All these requisites 
he had, as events proved. 

277. A Successful Enterprise. — Washington did his 
work remarkably well. As had been expected, the 
French refused to retire, but he learned that they 
were preparing for a further advance down the 
Alleghany in the coming spring. He learned other 
things concerning their designs, won the friendship of 
the Indian chiefs, and returned in safety after endur- 
ing great hardship, in which he narrowly escaped 
being shot by a treacherous Indian and being drowned 
while crossing the Alleghany amid floating ice. 

278. Fort Duquesne. — The place where the Alleghany 
and Monongahela Rivers join to form the Ohio 
had been closely observed by the young surveyor, 

•■ George Washington, born in Virginia, February 22, 1732, was 
a descendant of John Washington, who came to America about 
1657. As a youth he was noted for truthfulness and accuracy, 
and the same characteristics marked his whole life. He began the 
business of a surveyor when sixteen years of age by surveying the 
lands of Lord Fairfax in the Shenandoah Valley. At nineteen he 
was appointed adjutant general, with the rank of major, in the 
Virginia militia. His subsequent history is that of his country 
during his career. 



136 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1754 

and he reported it as an excellent location for a 
fort. In the spring of 1754 a party was sent out to 
build one, but before they had made much progress 
a strong body of French descended the Alleghany in 
canoes, drove the workmen away, and completed the 
fort for themselves, naming it Fort Duquesne. 




By Permisidon of the Fiiion Lpag>ie, Philadelphia. 



Washington Presenting Gov. Dinwiddie's Letter to Chevalier Leoardeiir 
DE St. Pierre, 1753. 

279. Washington's First Military Duty. — A collision 
was imminent. The English must act promptly or 
retire in baffled defeat. Governor Dinwiddle showed 
no lack of promptitude, but at once sent out a force 
of militia, in which Washington, as a reward for his 
efficient service, was made second in command. 



1754] 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 



137 




Washington Crossing the Alleghany 
River on Raft. 



Hurrying forward with a reconnoitering corps, he met 
a party of French skulking in the woods. As their 
secrecy denoted hostile intentions, they were fired 
upon and their com- 
mander was killed. 
This event (May 28, 
1754) was the opening 
scene in the most im- 
portant of American 
colonial wars. 

280. The Surrender of 
Fort Necessity. — Colonel 
Fryc having died on the 
march, Washington 
took command and, 

finding the French too strong, took refuge in a 
stockade which he built at Great Meadows and 
named Fort Necessity. Attacked here by a strong 
force of French and Indians, he was forced to sur- 
render after a sharp resistance, he and his men 
being permitted to return home with their arms 
and effects. 

281. England and France Send Troops. — The tidings 
of this hostile encounter roused wide-spread excite- 
ment. In England and France it was evident that a 
severe struggle was at hand and both prepared for the 
contest. General Braddock, an officer skilled in Euro- 
pean warfare, being sent to Virginia with two regi- 
ments of British soldiers, while the French also 
despatched troops. 

282. Franklin at Albany. — While George Washington 
was beginning the work of a soldier, Benjamin Frank- 




138 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1755 

lin. another of America's greatest men/ was beginning 
his career as a diplomat. At a convention of dele- 
gates from the colonies, held at Albany in 1754, he made 
an earnest effort to bring about a 
union among them. It was the first 
attempt of this kind and it failed, 
despite his endeavors. The colonies 
feared they would lose some of their 
power and be involved in unforeseen 
dangers. The British government 
also rejected the plan, fearing that 
union might make the colonies too 
Franklin. powcrful. Tlius, dcspitc Franklin 's 

energetic efforts, they remained dis- 
united during the French and Indian War. 

283. Braddock's Defeat.— Adding a force of Virginia 
militia to his regulars, General Bracldock began his 
march upon Fort Duquesne in the summer of 1755, 
\Yashington going with him as a member of his staff. 
The progress was very slow, much time being spent in 
making roads through the forest. At length a point 
ten miles from the fort was reached, and the army 
entered a deep ravine, the sides of which were thickly 
covered with underbrush. Suddenly from this the 
war-whoop sounded and a shower of bullets was 

* Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston in 1706. He became a 
printer and writer, and went to Philadelphia when seventeen years 
of age. There he was long in business as printer and publisher, 
was a very active and useful citizen, founding several important 
institutions, and gained great fame by proAnng that lightning is 
due to electricity in the clouds. He was appointed Postmaster- 
General for America in 17r).3 and during the remainder of his life 
was very prominent and useful in the political affairs of the country. 



1755] 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 



139 



poured into the ranks. The Virginians, accustomed to 
this kind of warfare, at once sprang for cover, to fight 
the savages in their own way; but Braddock obsti- 
nately forbade his men to do the same, and kept them 
in their ranks, wasting their fire, while they were 
falling rapidly befoi'e the bullets of the hidden foe. 
At length he fell with a mortal wound and his men 
broke and fled in dismay, Washington, at the head of 




Braddock's March. 



the Virginians, covering the retreat. The young officer 
won great credit in this disastrous affair, which he passed 
through without a wound, though two horses were shot 
under him and four bullets pierced his clothes. 

284. The Lake George Battle. — The war spirit had 
now spread throughout the northern colonies, and 
shortly after the defeat of Braddock a hotly-contested 
battle took place on the shores of Lake George between 
the French in their advance towards the Hudson and 
a colonial and Indian force led by Sir William Johnson. 



140 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 



[1755 



The French were defeated, but were permitted to retire 
unmolested to Crown Point. Instead of pursuing them, 
Johnson contented himself with building a fort, which he 
named Fort William Henry, at the southern end of Lake 
George. The French retaliated by building Fort Ticon- 

deroga at the northern end. 
285. Expulsion of the Acadians. 
— In the same year (1755) an 
act was committed by the Eng- 
lish which is usually looked 
upon as a piece of unwarranted 
cruelty. They held the part of 
Acadia now known 
as Nova Scotia, and 
sent a successful 
expedition against 
the remainder, now 
New Brunswick. 
Finding that the set- 
tlers here were giving 
aid and information 
to their countrymen, 
the French, the Eng- 
lish determined to 
expel from the country all those who would not take 
an oath of allegiance to the English king. Most of 
them refused this, and more than six thousand of the 
helpless settlers were forced on shipboard to be dis- 
tributed among the English colonies, their homes 
being l)urned and their farms laid waste to prevent 
their return. Many of these exiles found new homes 
in the French settlement of Louisiana. Though 




The Fort Duquesne Campaign. 



1756] 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 



141 



efforts have been made to justify this act on the score 
of mihtary necessity, it is not easy to believe that so 
cruel a deed could not have been avoided. 

286. The Spread of the War. — While Europe had 
formerly sent war to the colonies, the colonies now 




The Seat of War in New York. 



sent war to Europe. The 

war between the colonies 

extended to England and 

France in 1756 and later 

spread over Europe and to 

the colonies in India. It is 

known in history as the Seven Years' War, and became 

one of the world's most famous contests. 

287. Montcalm's Victories. — In 1756 the Marquis de 
Montcalm, an able French officer, was placed in com- 
mand in America, and began operations by capturing 
the English post at Oswego, which gave him large 
stores, many prisoners and the control of Lake Ontario. 



142 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1758 

In the following year he led a large force down Lakes 
Champlain and George and captured Fort William 
Henry. Here a lamentable affair took place. The 
Indians who formed part of Montcalm's army fell 
upon the unarmed prisoners and massacred large 
numbers of them, despite all the efforts of the French 
officers to prevent them. 

288. The British Repulsed at Ticonderoga. — In 1758 
General Abercrombie, then in command of the British 
forces, made a vigorous effort to take the strong French 
fort at Ticonderoga, leading fifteen thousand troops 
against it, while Montcalm held it with less than one- 
third that force. Yet the British were repelled, with 
heavy loss. 

289. The French Triumph. — Four years had now 
passed since the outbreak of the war and the French 
had won in every locality except Acadia. This was 
due to their military activity and the large forces sent 
from France. The English colonies at that time had a 
population ten times as great as the thinly-settled French 
domain, but the conduct of the war on their part had 
not equalled that of the French in energy and skill. 

290. A New Policy. — A change began in 1758. Wil- 
liam Pitt, the new Prime Minister of England, deter- 
mined to win, and sent large bodies of troops to 
America, while keeping the armies of France occupied 
in Europe. The defeat at Ticonderoga was the only 
failure in the new policy. The stronghold of Louis- 
burg, on Cape Breton Island, was a second time taken, 
and was now retained. Fort Duquesne had been left 
to the French since the defeat of Braddock's army, but 
now a successful expedition was sent against it. 



1759] 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 



143 



291. Fort Duquesne in English Hands. — During the 
period after Braddock's defeat Washington had been 
kept busy fighting with the Indians, whose success 
had made them bold and who made many attacks on 
the frontier settlers. When General Forbes marched 
against Fort Duquesne, Washington joined him with 
his Virginians. Yet the march was so slow and so 
much time was wasted in road-making that winter 
came on and Forbes decided to abandon the enter- 
prise. Washington, greatly dissatisfied with this feeble 
policy, and convinced that the French garrison was 
weak, asked permission to advance on the fort with 
his Virginia troops. Permission being given, he led 
his trained frontiersmen in a rapid march through the 
forest and quickly reached the vicinity of the fort. 
Alarmed at his approach, the French set fire to the 
place and fled. Wash- 
ington 's men were 
quickly within the 
works, the flames were 
extinguished and the 
stronghold was saved. 
Its name was changed 
to Fort Pitt, in honor 
of the great English 
statesman. 

292. The Campaign 
of 1759. — Encouraged 
by these successes, the 
Enghsh made a vigorous campaign in 1759, capturing 
all before them. Their army now greatly outnumbered 
that of France and Forts Ticondcroga and Crown Point 




The Siege of Quebec. 



144 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 



[1759 



were abandoned by their French garrisons, Niagara and 
Oswego were occupied, and the control of Lake Onta- 
rio was regained. The French were on every side 
driven back and Canada was invaded, the seat of war 
there being its stronghold of Quebec. 

293. The Siege of Quebec. — Against Quebec, the most 
powerful post left to France in America, the youthful 
General Wolfe was sent with an army of about eight 




The Heights of Abraham. 

thousand men. Behind the walls of Quebec, standing 
on a lofty bluff overlooking the St. Lawrence, lay 
Montcalm with a strong garrison. For three months 
Wolfe cannonaded the town and made vigorous efforts 
to take it, but in vain. Autumn came on; the time 
when the river would be closed by ice was at hand; 
Wolfe was in despair. 

294. The Heights of Abraham. — The only place open 
to a land attack was on the northwest side, and here 



1759] 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 



145 



was so steep a precipice that no one thought of its 
being scaled by an army. Yet Wolfe learned that 
there was a narrow path up the chff, and determijied 
to make the attempt. When night fell on September 
12, 1759, the ships' boats, laden with troops, floated 
silently and unseen down the stream. On reaching 
what is now known as Wolfe's Cove, the men landed 
and began to clamber up the narrow path. When the 
morning of September 
13 dawned Montcalm 
was astounded to learn 
that a British army of 
five t h u s a n d men 
stood on the supposed 
inaccessible Heights of 
Abraham. Taken by 
surprise, he marched 
upon them at once, 
hoping to dislodge them before more could reach 
the summit or many cannon be drawn up. The 
British were veterans, the French mostly colonial 
militia. In the battle that followed a terrific fire from 
the British ranks, followed by a bayonet charge, put 
the French to flight, Montcalm falling in the retreat. 
Wolfe had also received a mortal wound and hved 
only long enough to learn that he was the victor.' 




>F General Wolfe. 



1 While Wolfe lay bleeding with a mortal wound he heard the 
exultant cry, "They run! they run! " "Who run? " he asked. "The 
French!" "Now God be praised, " he said, "I shall die in peace." 
In a few minutes he expired. When Montcalm was told that his 
wound was mortal, he said, "So much the better. I shall not 
live to see the surrender of Quebec. " 
10 



146 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1763 

Five da3's later the city surrendered and the power of 
France in America was fatall}^ weakened. 

295. The Conflict Ends. — In the following year the 
French made a strong effort to reconquer Quebec, 
but the siege was raised on the approach of a powerful 
English fleet. Montreal was now assailed and quickly 
surrendered and the conflict ended. England had 
become master of all Canada. The only possessions 
remaining to France in North America were the posts 
on the Mississippi and the Gulf. 

296. A Treaty of Peace. — In Europe the war continued 
for two years more, peace not being declared until 
1763. The treaty of peace put an end to the dominion 
of France in America. All Canada was yielded to 
England except two small islands near Newfoundland, 
held for fishing purposes. There were other changes 
of much importance. Spain had joined France in the 
closing years of the war and in 1762 England had 
captured from that country Cuba and the Philippine 
Islands. These were now given back to Spain in 
exchange for Florida. As Spain had thus lost Florida 
through her alHance with France, the latter made 
over to her all its possessions on and west of the 
Mississippi, as a reward for her aid. As a result the 
territory of the present United States now belonged 
to England and Spain, England holding the whole 
country east of the Mississippi except New Orleans, 
Spain all west of that river. Thus a most significant 
change had been wrought in the destinies of America. 

297. The Indians Rebel. — There was one party to the 
contest whose rights were quite overlooked in the 
settlement. These were the Indian alhes of France in 



1763] 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 



147 



the war. They were friendl}' to the French, but feared 
and hated the Enghsh, and were not content to yield 
to their control. Pontiac, a leading chief of the 
Ottawa tribe, organized a great tribal combination 
with the hope of expelling the English and restoring 
the country to its old masters. It was a natural but 
hopeless effort. 

298. The Indian War. — Pontiac's plan was to fall at 
once on all the English 

forts and take them 
by surprise. In May 
and June, 1763, the 
blow fell. Eight fron- 
tier forts were taken 
and their garrisons 
slain or captured. 
Only Fort Pitt and 
Detroit escaped. 
Many of the frontier 
settlers were murdered 
and thousands fled in 
terror. For two years 
the war continued, its 

principal fight being at Bushy Run, in Pennsylvania, 
where Colonel Bouquet severely defeated the savages. 
The contest came to an end in 1766, the mastery 
remaining with the whites. 

299. The Results of the War. — The great colonial 
war described had cost the colonists heavily. They 
had lost fifty thousand men, had spent many millions 
of dollars, and had suffered severely from Indian 
raids. Yet they had gained more than they had lost. 




Copj-right 19112 lij Detroit I'lintdgrapliic Co. 
Old Block House. 



148 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1763 

Their great rival had been driven from the land, they 
had raised money, recruited armies and fought bat- 
tles independently of England. They were evidently 
quite capable of taking care of themselves. During 
the hotly-contested war many officers and soldiers 
had been trained in military service, among the former 




Colonial Territory after the French and Indian War. 

being such men as Washington, Putnam, Arnold, 
Stark, Montgomery, and others of later fame. Much 
valuable preparation had been made for a greater 
contest soon to come. 

5. LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 

300. Home Life. — In addition to the public life, it 
is of importance to speak of the home life of the people 
of the colonies; about their houses, dress, food, and 
occupations, and the state of the country during 
colonial times. 



LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 



149 



301. The Population. — This country then was different 
in many ways from what we see it to-day. Its whole 
population was probably much less than may now be 
seen in the one city of New York. The cities were 
small, Philadelphia, the largest, having only about 
twenty thousand people. Very few of the people had 
crossed the Alleghany Mountains, the great region 
bevond which was a forest-covered wilderness. And 




CoNESTOGA Wagon. 



everywhere, back from the sea-coast regions, the 
colonists were very thinly settled, and the country 
was largely left to the Indians and the beasts of the 
forest and prairie. The people were chiefly of English 
descent, though many Germans and Swedes had 
settled in Pennsylvania, Dutch in New York, Irish 
and Scotch in most of the colonies, and French Protes- 
tants in South Carolina, so that the races of most of 
Europe are mingled in the Americans of to-day. 



150 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 



302. Modes of Travel. — The people rarely left their 
homes, for the means of going about were very poor. 
The roads were few and hard to travel and it was not 
easy to get about except by boat. Inland travel was 
chiefly done on foot through the woods or on horse- 
back over rude bridle paths and roads. People went 
about so little that even in Philadelphia, the largest 
city, a stranger was looked upon with curiosity. When 




A ("cii.oM \i. Si \i.i C 



goods needed to be transported, this was done largely 
on pack-horses, but the farmers of Pennsylvania in 
time came to use numbers of the famous Conestoga 
wagons, large, canvas-covered vehicles, drawn by 
six or eight horses. In 1753 it took AVashington 
forty-two days to travel five hundred and sixty miles. 
Now this journey can be made in less than a day. 

303. Stage Coach Lines. — It was late in the eighteenth 
century before stage travel began. Between Phila- 
delphia and New York the first stage was a wagon 



LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 151 

that ran twice a week. The roads were so bad that it 
did not average more than three miles an hour. In 
176G coaches made the journey in two days, and these 
were thought so swift that they were called "flying 
machines." In wet weather the coaches often stuck 
fast in the mud, and had to be pulled out with the 
aid of the passengers. In 1789 it took a week to travel 
from Boston to New York. As there were no bridges 
all rivers had to be crossed in boats. 

304. Water Travel. — The easiest way of getting about 
was by water, up and down the rivers in boats and 
along the coast waters in sailing vessels. At an early 
date the New England shippers were sending trading 
vessels to the West Indies and fishing craft to New- 
foundland, and in time Yankee ships were to be seen 
in every foreign port, and were thought to be much 
superior to Europeart vessels both in speed and strength. 
By their aid a valuable commerce was built up. 

305. Postage. — -As may be judged from the difficulty 
of travel, the sending of letters was a slow process. 
The first mail route in this country, started between 
New York and Boston in 1672, took a month for a 
round trip. In 1729 the mail was taken between 
New York and Philadelphia once a week in summer, 
but only once a fortnight in winter. The mails were 
carried in saddle-bags by men on horseback, the 
carriers jogging along slowly and often knitting 
stockings to pass the time. Aside from these regular 
routes letters were sent only when enough had collected 
to pay the cost of carriage. As late as 1790 it took two 
days to send a letter from Philadelphia to New York. 
Now it takes but two hours. 



152 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 



306. Postal Rates. — The cost of sending letters was so 
great that few were written. In 1792 it cost eight cents 
for a single letter sheet sent forty miles or less, ten 
cents if more than forty miles and less than ninety 
miles, and twenty-five cents for the distance from New 
York to Richmond. Two sheets were charged double. 
To us, who can send letters for two cents to all parts 
of the country and to England and Germany, these 
rates seem prohibitory. 

307. The Houses of the People. — In the early days of 
the country the people did not enjoy much comfort. 

Their houses were usu- 
ally built of logs, with 
steep, thatched roofs. 
The best part of the 
house was its great 
fireplace, piled in win- 
ter with blazing logs, 
over which the cook- 
ing was done, and 
a r o u n d w h i c h the 
family loved to gather. 
The kitchen in those days was the favorite living room. 
Swinging cranes bore pots over the fire, and spits and 
skillets were used for cooking on the hearth. Some 
houses had large brick ovens, which were heated with 
blazing wood and held the heat for hours. Baking was 
done in these. 

308. Houses of the Wealthy. — In later years larger and 
better houses were built and wealthy people often 
had costly dwellings of brick or stone, the apartments 
finely panelled with mahogany or other rich woods, 




Fireman's Hat. 



LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 153 

hung with tapestry and adorned with pictures. But 
the best of these dwellings were cheerless in winter 
except before the wood-fire on the hearth. 

309. In New York and the South. — The Dutch houses 
in New York were built like those of Holland, of wood 
or small black or yellow bricks, 
with gable ends facing the street. 
They were generally one and a half 
stories high. There was a great 
brass knocker on the door and, 
instead of carpets, the floor was 
covered with sand, swept into lines 
and patterns with the broom. The 
houses in Philadelphia were usually 
two stories high, with gardens and 
orchards around them, the side- 
walks often paved with flagstones, 
then very rare in cities. In the 
south the planters built large, 
showy mansions, with broad stair- 

1 ,1 i • i (• Fire Bucket of 1802. 

ways and mantels and wainscots of 
carved mahogany. The furniture was rich and costly, 
and gold and silver plate might be seen in abundance 
on the sideboards. 

310. Furniture. — The furniture, of course, was gov- 
erned by the means of the house-owners. It was 
usually home-made and not very abundant. Oiled 
paper often took the place of glass in the windows, 
and when glass was used the panes were small and 
diamond-shaped. Carpets were almost unknown and 
clocks were rare, time being usually guessed from the 
movement of the sun. The best room, with its fine 




154 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 



furniture and ornaments, was kept closed except on 
great occasions, the famil}^ living in the cheerful 
kitchen, with its dresser set with pewter dishes, its 

massive dining table and 
chairs or stools, its bunches 
of herbs and strings of dry- 
ing apples hanging from the 
low joists, and occasionally 
a tall wooden clock in the 
corner. AVhen out of the 
light of the hearth-fire, only 
home-made tallow candles 
were used for lighting. 

311. Food.— What did the 
people ea.t and what did 
they wear? These are the 
questions which next come 
before us. Food was usu- 
ally plentiful enough, but 
was of no such variety as 
we enjoy to-day. It was 
mostly the product of the 
Fresh meat was rare, salt 
meat and fish being the stand-by in winter. Wheat 
was too dear for general use, and rye and Indian corn 
meal were used for bread and cakes. There was little 
variety of vegetables, and tea and coffee were not 
much used. The home orchard supplied fruit. Phila- 
delphia was noted for its abundance of fruit, peaches 
being so plentiful that the people fed their pigs on them. 
312. Dress. — The clothing worn varied to suit the 
climate and occupation. In New England the Puritan 




William Penn's Writing Desk. 



home garden and farm. 



LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 



155 



gentry dressed quite plainly, wearing knee-breeches 
and short cloaks, with ruffs around their necks and 
steeple-crowned hats. For great occasions they had 
high boots rolled over at the top, 
rich belts and buttons of gold 
or silver. The women wore silk 
dresses and hoods, lace handker- 
chiefs and other finery for Sun- 
days, but dressed in homespun 
during the week. AVorking men 
dressed much more plainly, their 
breeches being of leather or coarse 
cloth, their jackets of red or green f~'- 
baize. All were forbidden by law 
to wear clothing too fine for 
their station, and the constables 
were ordered to observe and 
report all such. 

The Dutch in New York wore the native Holland 
dress, consisting of several pairs of knee-breeches, 
one over the other, which gave them a very baggy 
appearance. Large buckles were worn at the knees 
and on the shoes and great brass or silver buttons 
on the coats. The women wore a number of short 
and bright-colored skirts, with colored stockings and 
high-heeled shoes and a white muslin cap on the head. 
In Virginia the wealthy planters and citizens dressed 
showily, with three-cornered cocked hats, long velvet 
cloaks with lace ruffles at the wrist, knee-breeches, 
white silk stockings, and shoes with silver buckles. The 
hair was worn long, powdered with white, and tied in a 
twist or queue with a black silk ribbon. The women 




Costumes op the Pilgrims. 



156 



THE ERA OF COLOXTAL WARS 



wore rich brocades or thick silks and also powdered their 
hair. This was the state dress. Usually they dressed 
more simply, and the common people very plainly. 

313. Drinking Habits. — Drunkenness grew to be a 
crying evil in the colonies, north and south ahke, the 

use of intoxicating liquors 
becoming ver}^ common. 
Rum was imported largely 
from the West Indies and 
whiskey and hard cider were 
used much on the farms. It 
was common to take five or 
six glasses of licjuor a day, 
many taking more. Drink 
was served on every occa- 
sion. A jug of whiskey was 
supplied to the hands getting 
in hay, and a large quantity 
was necessary for those who 
aided in raising the timbers 
of a house. All classes drank, 
even the clergy. No bargain 
could be made without a 
dram, and the sideboard with its decanter and glasses 
was looked upon as a necessary piece of furniture. In 
earh' New England only men of good character were 
allowed to keep a tavern and these were forbidden to 
sell liquor to habitual drunkards. The laws of Con- 
necticut, in early days, forbade the use of tobacco by 
any one under twenty, and prohibited any man from 
using it more than once a day. But in time these laws 
became dead letters and drinking very common. 




A Colonial Dress or 17fiO. 



LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 



157 



314. Amusements. — The people had their amuse- 
ments, including dancing and feasting, quiltings, 
huskings, sleigh-rides, hunting excursions, and out- 
door sports of various kinds. The holidays were 
thanksgiving and fast days, election and training days, 
while weddings were times of feasting and enjoyment 




Old Grist Mill with Water Power Wheel. 



and even funerals were followed by profuse feasts. 
But such a thing as a theatre w^as unknown and there 
was very little music. In the south gambling became 
common, and horse-racing and cock-fighting were 
favorite amusements. 

315. Southern Hospitality. — In the great manor 
houses of the south, often far separated from the 



158 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 




Some of Benjamin Franklin's 
China. 



cities and from each other, the coming of a stranger 
who might bring news of the outside world was warmly 
welcomed. A servant was often posted on the high- 
way to look out for any re- 
spectable traveller and invite 
him to stop and spend the 
night at his master's mansion. 
Here he would be treated to 
the best, and perhaps have a 
hunt or other sport for his en- 
joyment the next da}'. This be- 
came so common that the inns 
were little patronized and in consequence were very poor. 
316. Occupations. — The people were kept very busy, 
for there was much to do and little 
and poor machinery to do it with. 
Farm work was hard, especially 
in New England, where the soil 
was poor, and yielded only scanty 
crops of Indian corn, beans and 
garden vegetables. While the 
men were kept busy out of doors, 
the women were as busy within, 
the spinning-wheel and hand-loom 
being kept in active use, since 
home-spun clothing was the com- 
mon wear. Farther south, where 
ample crops of wheat, tobacco and 
rice were grown, there was far 
more leisure. Slaves were kept in all the colonies, and 
in the south they did so much of the work that the 
planters came to look upon handwork as degrading. 




Old Spinning-Wheel. 



^jML ; 



A Ha, KLE. 



LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 159 

317. Laws and Penalties. — The laws were severe and 
many of the penalties cruel. Even for small offenses 
men were put in the stocks or the pillory, their hands, 
feet, and necks being fastened in wooden frames and 
they exposed to abuse or ridicule. A common scold 
might be gagged and seated before her door for public 
scorn. In Virginia and some other colonies ducking 
stools were in use, the ^ 
scold being dipped into 
a pond or stream. The 
whipping-post was also 
in common use, and 
other ordinary punish- 
ments were cropping 
or boring the ears and branding with a hot iron. There 
were many offenses punishable with death, as many 
as seventeen at one time in Virginia. In early Xew 
England disrespect to parents might be punished with 
death, though it cannot be said that it ever was. 

318. Military Service. — In the colonies military service 
was a necessity of the situation. With the constant 
peril of Indian attacks, every man had to possess 
some of the training of a soldier. In Xew England 
every man or boy of sixteen or over had to undergo 
military training. Matchlocks, the guns of that day, 
were clumsy weapons. They had to be fired with a 
slow-burning match. Afterwards the flint and steel, 
with their spark of fire, replaced the match. The guns 
at first were so heavy that each soldier had to carry a 
forked stick, on which he would rest his gun when firing. 
Helmets and breast-plates were worn, and coats quilted 
with cotton wool, through which no arrow could pass. 



160 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 



319. Religious Customs. — Much more might be said 
about the manners and customs of the colonists, but 
we must here confine ourselves to their religious and 
political conditions. America taught a lesson in reli- 
gion to the world. It was the first country in which 
complete religious liberty existed. This was the case 
in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania, in which ever}'' 
one was free to hold any religious opinions he pleased. 
It was the case also for a time in Maryland. Freedom 
of worship existed in the Carolinas, but was not found 




Steei., Flint, Tixder Box ami Sn j hi k Matches. 



in Virginia and New York, and especially not in Massa- 
chusetts, where the Puritans spent much of their 
time in trying to make everybody believe and worship 
in one way. 

320. Puritan Church Customs. — On Sunday morning 
the people of Massachusetts were called to church by 
the beating of a drum, or the sound of a horn or bell. 
There were laws to punish those who did not go. 
Here they had to listen to prayers and sermons hours 
long, with the constable on the lookout to waken 
any one who went to sleep. The old people, the young 
11 



LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 161 

men, and the young women had each a fixed place, 
while the boys sat in the gallery or on the pulpit stairs 
and were closely watched by the constable. 

321. Cheerless Churches. — The people did not have 
such comfortable churches as we have to-day. They 
sat on hard, rude benches, and had no means of heat- 
ing the church. Some of the more delicate took with 




A Colonial Church, 

them heated stones or hand-stoves, but for most of 
them the church was a shivery place on cold winter 
days. In early times the church was often a fort also, 
and the men made their way to it with muskets on 
their shoulders. The Indians were not to be trusted, 
and even in farming the gun was kept close at hand. 
322. Strict Sabbath Keeping. — The Sunday laws were 
very strict. No one was permitted to work, ride, or 
amuse himself on the Sabbath. To walk in the street, 



162 



THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 




A Foot-Stove. 



except to church, was against the law. A woman 
who smiled in church was threatened with a whipping, 
and a person absent from church for more than one 

Sunday might be fined, 
whipped, or set in the 
stocks. Swearing was 
prohibited and the 
swearer was likely to 
have his tongue 
pinched by a split 
stick. We have told 
elsewhere how Captain 
John Smith punished 
swearers in Virginia 
by pouring cans of cold water down their sleeves. 
323. Political Liberty. — ^Despite the strictness in New 
England and some of the other colonies, the English 
settlers in America set the world a lesson in religious 
liberty rarely before seen. It was the same in political 
affairs. Nowhere else was there a government by the 
people equal to that which the Pilgrims established 
in Plymouth and the Puritans in Boston. The town- 
meeting system was the true government "of the 
people, by the people and for the people" spoken of 
by Abraham Lincoln. It was much the same else- 
where. The people of Virginia were making their 
own laws before another colony was founded. In 
Pennsylvania and Mar3dand the fullest free govern- 
ment was given to the people, and only in New York, 
Carolina, and Georgia was any attempt made to 
deprive the people of political rights, and these at- 
tempts soon failed. Thus, while in the French and 



LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 



163 



Spanish colonies the people had no political rights at 
all, in the English colonies they enjo3"ed very much 
freedom. 

324. Forms of Government. — Three forms of govern- 
ment prevailed, the Charter, the Proprietary, and the 
Royal. Three of the colonies, Massachusetts, Con- 
necticut, and Rhode Island, were under charter govern- 
ment, which gave them the privilege of electing their 
own governors and legislatures, taxing themselves, 
and making their own laws. While under the dominion 
of Great Britain, they were independent in all matters 




Pine-Tree Shilling. 



of government. Under its second charter Massachu- 
setts lost the privilege of electing its governor, but 
retained its other rights. 

325. Proprietary Government. — Of the colonies under 
the control of proprietors, Pennsylvania, Delaware 
and Maryland possessed all the political privileges of 
the charter governments except that of electing their 
governor, who, with his council, was appointed by the 
proprietor. For a time New York, New Jersey, the 
Carolinas, and Georgia were under proprietors and 
had little political freedom, but in time these became 
royal provinces and gained much more liberty. 



164 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 

326. Royal Government. — Virginia, and New Hamp- 
shire from the time it was made a separate colony, 
were under roj^al government throughout, they hav- 
ing no charters and being under governors appointed 
by the king. He also appointed the council, which 
had a share in the law-making power, but the lower 
house of the Assembly was elected by the people. 
All the colonies had two legislative bodies except 
Pennsylvania, which had but one law-making Assembly, 
the council being executive only and having no voice 
in legislation. This continued until 1790, when it 
adopted the two-house system of the others. Later 
on New York, New Jersey, North Carolina, South 
Carolina and Georgia came under the ro3\il form of 
government. 

327. The Lesson Taught by America. — Tims we may 
say that the English colonies in America served as an 
object lesson to the French and Spanish colonies and 
to the nations of Europe in civil and religious liberty. 
It was a lesson these countries were slow in learning. 
It is yet not fully learned. But the example of this 
country has had a great influence upon the remainder 
of the world, at first in France, then in the rest of 
Europe and America, and of late years in Japan and 
China, so that our country has been the beacon light 
of freedom to the whole civilized world. 

SUMMARY OF EVENTS 

1689-1697. War in Europe affects America. Terrible massacres 
by French and Indians of the English colonists. Canada invaded 
without result. Frontenac attacks the Iroquois tribes and forces 
them to beg for mercy. 

1702-171.3. A second war in Europe between France and Eng- 
land leads to new massacres of English colonists in America. 



LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 165 

Port Royal is taken and named Annapolis. A naval expedition 
against Quebec fails. There is war with the Spanish and 
Indians in tiie south. 

1740-1748. The fortress of Louisburg is captured by New Eng- 
land colonists. The Spaniards invade Georgia and are driven out. 
Louisburg is returned to France. 

1750. Conflicting claims of England and France in America. 
Movements towards the Ohio Valley. The Ohio Company sends 
out surveyors. French forts are built. 

1753. George Washington is sent to the French forts. Results 
of his journey. Fort Duquesne is built. Washington builds Fort 
Necessity and is forced to surrender. Franklin at Albany in 1754. 

1755. Braddock's march and defeat. The battle at Lake George. 
The people of Acadia expelled. 

1757. Capture of Fort William Henry and massacre of its gar- 
rison. The Seven Years' War begins in Europe. 

1758. A British army repulsed at Fort Ticonderoga. Louisburg 
taken by the English. Washington captures Fort Duquesne. 

1759. Ticonderoga and other French forts taken. Quebec 
besieged by General Wolfe. Battle on the Heights of Abraham 
and capture of Quebec. 

1760-63. ^Montreal taken and the war ends in America. In the 
treaty of 1763 Canada is yielded to the English. Spain loses Florida 
and gains to^ Louisiana territory. North America is divided be- 
tween England and Spain. The Indians rebel under Pontiac and 
take many forts. They are finally defeated. Results of the war. 

TOPICS FOR REVIEW. 

Discuss orally or in written composition. 

The Colonies in America. — When and by whom settled — pur- 
pose — important persons — interesting incidents. 

Colonial Wars. — Events of King William's war — of Queen Anne's 
— of King George's — cause and character of the French and Indian war 
— Washington's part in it — the taking of Quebec — results of the wars. 

Colonial Life. — The people — travel — postal affairs — houses — food 
—churches — TOvernment. 



PART V 

THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



1. CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 

328. After the War With the French.— The close of the 
French and Indian War left the colonies in debt. 
But they had got rid of an active and threatening 
rival, had added greatly to their area, and had before 
them the promise of a broad and undisturbed develop- 
ment. Yet there existed conditions that were soon 
to give them serious trouble. England had suffered 
as well as the colonies, and naturally wished to make 
these, in some way, repay a part of the costs of the 
war. The Americans would probably have made no 
objection to this if they had been approached in the 
right way and been themselves permitted to vote the 
requisite funds. But this was not the method of 
dealing with colonies in those days, and England 
adopted a plan of action that had undreamed of and 
disastrous results. The course pursued by the king 
and parliament and its consequences are the historical 
events with which we have next to deal. 

329. George III. on the Throne. — In 1700 a new king, 
George III., ascended the English throne. A man 
obstinate in disposition and with an exaggerated idea 
of the royal prerogative, he was not well fitted to deal 
with a people as sensitive on the subject of political 
liberty as the Americans. Seconded by docile ministers 
and by a Parliament that had little regard for the rights 

IGG 



1760] CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 167 

and feelings of the colonists, he i^uickly made mischief 
for himself and his subjects. 

330. The Navigation Acts. — No one at that time 
seems to have understood that prosperity in trade 
depends upon freedom from restriction. It was held 
that colonies existed for the benefit of the mother 
country and could be dealt with as the authorities 
saw fit. In consequence, what were known as Naviga- 
tion Acts had long been in existence and had been 
made more stringent as time went on. These laws 
forbade the colonists to trade with any country except 
Great Britain, and were afterwards extended to require 
that trade should be confined to British ships. The 
colonies were even forbidden to trade with one another 
in their own ships. 

331. Manufactures Prohibited. — Other stringent laws 
related to manufactures. The colonists were pro- 
hibited from using their own wool to weave cloth for 
themselves or their own iron to make nails and plough- 
shares. All raw material must be shipped abroad to 
be made into goods in British workshops and returned 
in British ships. Grain and other farm produce, how- 
ever, could not be shipped, since these might interfere 
with the business and profits of British farmers. A 
high tariff' was therefore placed on the products of the 
fields so that colonial farmers could not compete with 
those of England. 

332. The Laws Defied. — Laws of this kind had existed 
for a century before the time to which we have now 
come, but they had long been of little account. Ships 
were still built in American yards and trade went on 
with the West Indies and European ports despite 



16S THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [176:3 

British prohibition. And many things were made in 
American workshops also, in disregard of the laws. 

333. Writs of Assistance. — George III. and his ministers 
determined to put a stop to smuggling, as this trade 
with foreign lands was called. Boston was full of 
smuggled goods, and "writs of assistance" were issued, 
which gave the oflBcer of customs the right to break 
into any warehouse and dwelling and search it from 
garret to cellar for such goods. Little was gained by 
this process, but it served to irritate the Bostonians. 
who bitterly resented having their houses broken into. 
And in spite of the writs and searches smuggling went 
on and American shipping ploughed the seas. 

334. What Parliament Proposed. — The British ministry 
next took the step of asking America to provide 
money for its own defence. It was proposed to send 
troops from England for the defence of the colonies, 
whose expenses the Americans were to pay. They 
were also to pay the governors, judges and crown 
attorneys. To this there was no serious objection, but 
to the manner in which it was proposed to carry it 
out the objection was very serious. The money was 
to be raised by taxes over which the assemblies of the 
colonies had no control, and to be expended by the 
king, who might use it in a way to make the officials 
independent of control, and even, if he saw fit, for 
purposes of bribery and corruption. Against this the 
colonists vigorously protested. They had hitherto taxed 
themselves and spent their own money in their own way, 
and they had no intention of giving up this privilege. 

335. The Stamp Act. — The British government, find- 
ini: the Americans in this obstinate mood, now sou2:ht 



1765] CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 169 

to raise money in a new way. In 1765 what is known 
as the Stamp Act was passed. It was decided that 
stamps should be affixed to all pubhc documents, 
legal papers, newspapers, etc., the stamps being sent 
from England and sold at prices ranging from a half- 
penny to twelve pounds, according to the value 
of the document. 

336. How the Stamp Act \\as Received. — This Act 
would hardly have been passed if Parliament had 
foreseen how it would be received. 
It filled the American people with 
indignation. It was a new way of 
depriving them of the right of 
taxing themselves, and to this 
they would not submit. Mobs 
attacked the houses of British 
officials. The leading orators de- 
nounced the Act as tyranny. The 
doctrine of James Otis, that ■' Tax- 
ation without representation is tyranny," became the 
watchword of the people and the text of the orators, and 
they did not hesitate to speak in the plainest language.* 

337. The Stamps Rejected. — "When the time came to 
put the law into effect no one would use the stamps. 

' Patrick Heiiry, an eloquent young la\\yer of Virginia, was 
especially daring in his remarks. He declared before the Virginia 
assembly that its members alone had the right to tax the people of 
"N'irginia and that they were not bound to obey any law not made 
by their own representatives. He went on to aUude to tyrants in 
these ringing words. — ''Ciesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his 
Cromwell, and George the Third — " Cries of ''Treason" inter- 
rupted him. Pausing a moment, he added impressively, "'May 
profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it. " 




17U 



THE ERA OF REVOi^UTION 



[1766 



Many of them were seized and burned and the stamp 
agents forced to resign. Newspapers were issued witli 
a skull and cross-bones instead of the stamp. Legal 
papers were held to be good without being stamped. 
The excitement went so far that people refused to 
use any article of British manufacture, and business 
with the colonies fell off so greatly that appeals were 
sent to Parliament to repeal the law. Parliament 




Patrick Hknry Addressing the Virginia Assembly. 

was astounded. No such resistance had been looked 
for. But the Americans would not use the stamps and 
were busy making goods for themselves, and thus 
injuring British trade, so there was nothing to do but 
to withdraw the offensive law. 

338. The Colonists and the King. — All this did not 
teach the king and liis advisers the necessary lesson, 
that the American people would pay no taxes except 
those imposed ])y their own re]iresentatives. George 



1767-70] CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 171 



III., in his obstinate way, decided that he had the 
right to tax them and that he would use it. Matters 
were bad enough; he proceeded to make them worse. 

339. New Taxes. — In 1767 laws were passed laying 
duties on glass, paper, lead, paints, and tea, and troops 
w^ere sent to America to enforce these laws, the people 
being ordered to shelter and feed these soldiers. The 
Assemblies of New York and Massachusetts refused to 
tax the people for any such purpose., and in conse- 
ciuence were forbidden to hold any sessions. The 
other Assemblies were also defiant, and were dis- 
solved so often that for several years hardly any 
business could be done. The people did nothing 
except to desist from using English goods, but this 
was sufficient, the trade to New England falling off 
one-half and that to New York almost disappearing. 

340. The Boston Massacre. — The king and Parlia- 
ment were fast making rebels out of loyal people. 
Two regiments of 
troops, under General 
Gage, were sent to 
Boston in 1768. The 
people received them 
defiantly and refused 
them quarters, so that 
they were obliged to 
camp on Boston Com- 
mon. Two years later, 
on March 6, 1770, some 

of these soldiers fired on a mob that had abused and 
taunted them. This affair, called the "Boston Mas- 
sacre, " created so fierce an excitement, that it became 



H^ J^ 


IM Ji 


1^^ 


li 


<^ 


™ 



The Boston Massacre. 



172 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1773 

necessary to remove the troops from the city to one of 
the islands in the harbor. Four persons had been killed 
and the soldiers concerned were tried for murder. They 
were defended by John Adams and Josiah Quincy, lead- 
ing patriots, who felt that they had been driven to their 
act. All were acquitted but two, who were found 
guilty of manslaughter and sentenced to be branded 
on the hand. 

341. The Tax on Tea. — George III. was still obsti- 
nately bent on taxing the colonists and thus asserting 
his prerogative, and while most of the obnoxious laws 
were repealed, the tax on tea was retained. "There 
must be one tax to keep up the right," said the king. 
To make this tax palatable to the Americans, the duty 
paid on tea in England was removed from American 
tea, so that, even while paying the three pence tax 
per pound, the Americans would get their tea at a 
lower price than they had been paying, or than was 
paid at that time in England. 

342. The People Unyielding. — King George was still 
ignorant of the temper of the American people. Their 
irritation had steadily grown, and his device of selling 
them taxed tea at a lower price than they had paid 
for untaxed tea did not pacify them. The principle of 
taxation without representation remained, and to this 
they would not submit. No tea being ordered from 
America, several cargoes were sent over in 1773, in 
the hoyiQ that they would find buyers; but they were 
everywhere rejected. At Philadelphia and New York 
the ships were ordered away. At Charleston the tea 
was landed and stored in damp cellars, where it rotted 
unbought. At Annapolis a tea ship was burned. 



1773] CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 173 

343. The Ships at Boston. — ^When the tea ships 
reached Boston they were ordered away, but the 
collector of that port refused to let them go and 
preparations were made to unload the vessels and 




Faxkuil IIai.i,. 

store the tea. This was prevented in a dramatic way. 
A town-meeting was held in Faneuil Hall on Decem- 
ber 16, 1773, at which Samuel Adams* presided. The 
debate had ended and evening had fallen when Adams 
ro«e and said, "This meeting can do nothing more to 
save the country." 

' Samuel Adams, born in Boston in 1722, was the leader of the 
people of that town in the cause of liberty. Always poor, he could 
not be bought, and when pardon was offered by General Gage to 
the American patriots, he and John Hancock were excepted. 
He was a member of the First Continental Congress, which he had 
been the first to propose. 



174 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



[1773 



344. The Boston Tea=Party. —The words of the 
speaker found an echo in a war-whoop on the street 
and a party of men dressed as Indians ran past the 
hall towards the wharves. Here they boarded and 
took possession of the vessels, hoisted up the tea 
chests from the hold, broke them open and poured their 
contents into the water. In two hours' time the work 
was over, and the tea all gone to the fishes. 




The Boston Tea-Party. 

345. The Intolerable Acts. — Bitterly incensed by this 
defiant deed, the king, instead of taking warning before 
it was too late, had acts passed in Parliament which 
served only to add to the indignation of the people. 
These — called in America the ''Intolerable Acts"' — 
closed the port of Boston until the lost tea should be 
paid for; gave soldiers or officials accused of murder 
the right to be sent to Nova Scotia or England for 
trial; made the governor of Massachusetts an absolute 



1773] CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 175 

ruler; and placed all the country west of the Alle- 
ghanies under the government of Canada. 

346. Boston in Distress. — The closing of the port of 
Boston put an end to the commercial business of that 
city and caused deep distress. Food grew very scarce 
and supplies were sent from other cities, the whole 
country sympathizing with Boston in its resistance to 
tyranny. Not onh^ food, but money, was donated, Bos- 
ton being regarded as a martyr in the cause of liberty. 

347. New Troops in Boston. — Blind to the evidences 
of disloyal sentiment shown everywhere in the colonies, 
the king took further steps in the effort to bend the 
people to his will, still blind to the fact that he was 
fast driving them into rebellion. General Gage was 
sent back to Boston, with four regiments of troops 
and several batteries of artillery, and the despotic 
step was taken of making him governor of Massachu- 
setts — though no patriot ever recognized him as such. 

348. Committees of Correspondence. — The people of 
Massachusetts were practically without a government, 
their assembly having for several years been dissolved, 
and they being placed under military rule. In this 
dilemma a plan suggested by Samuel Adams was 
adopted. Each town appointed a committee to confer 
with committees of other towns on matters of govern- 
ment. These he called "Committees of Correspond- 
ence," and said that a meeting of all would consti- 
tute a "Provincial Congress." 

This step was taken in 1772. In 1773 Dabncy Carr,- 
of Virginia, proposed and arranged for Committees of 
Correspondence between the several colonies. Only 
one step farther was needed to bring into being a 
Continental Congress. 



176 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1774 

349. Steps Toward Union. — As may be seen, the 
colonies were being driven towards the union they 
had so long resisted. Franklin's convention in 1754 
had failed to bring them together. A second step was 
taken in 1765, when a "Stamp-Act Congress" was 
convened. These were delegates sent from the colonies 
to New York to consider the situation and appeal to 
the king for American rights. The final step was taken 
in June, 1774, when Samuel Adams proposed in the 
General Court at Salem that a Continental Congress 
should be chosen, to meet in Philadelphia on Septem- 
ber 1, of that year. 

350. The First Continental Congress. — The idea was 
welcomed. All the colonics chose delegates except 
Georgia, where the governor prevented the Assembly 
from acting. On September 5, 1774, this significant 
representative body met in Carpenters' Hall,^ Phila- 
delphia, and began its deliberations. It consisted of 
fifty-five delegates, the vanguard of the American 
Congress which has since that period been in existence. 
Among its delegates were such men as George Wash- 
ington, Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee, of 
Virginia, Samuel Adams and John Adams of Massa- 
chusetts, and leading men from the other colonies. 

351. The Acts of the First Congress. — There was 
nothing disloyal in the acts of the Congress. It peti- 
tioned the king to redress the wrongs of the colonies, 

* Carpenters' Hall was built by the association known as the 
Carpenters' Company in 1724. After the sessions of the first Con- 
gress it was used for various public purposes, and is still in exist- 
ence, carefully preserved as a precious historical monument of the 
United States. 



1774] CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 177 

sent addresses to the people of Great Britain, Canada, 
and the colonies, and drew up a declaration of rights. 
Among these was the right to make all laws and to 
levy all taxes in the colonies. It also agreed to stop 
all trade with Great Britain and proposed to put an 
end to the slave trade, which the English government 
then fostered. This done, the Congress adjourned 




First Prayer in the Coxtinental Congress. 

October 26, 1774, after providing for another Congress 
to meet May 10, 1775. The first definite step towards 
union of the colonies had been taken. No backward 
step was to follow it. From that Congress grew the 
United States of America. 

352. The Provincial Congress of Massachusetts. — A 
Provincial Congress met in Massachusetts in October, 
1774, the acts of which were far more defiant of British 
authority. Provision was made for the collection of 

12 



178 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1775 

military stores, and this iiiiiiuHliatcly began. Through- 
out the colony the people were organizing and drilling, 
and twenty thousand men were called out by the 
delegates, one-third of them being "Minute-Men" — 
men ready to march and fight on a minute's notice. 
Similar movements were made in other colonies. 
From Boston to Savannah defensive measures were 
adopted, the warlike spirit being everywhere awakened. 
Patrick Henry echoed the general sentiment when in 
March, 1775, he uttered these memorable words: 
"As for me, give me liberty or give me death!" 

353. Rebellion Declared. — The peril of the situation 
was recognized in England. In February, 1775, 
Parliament declared that rebellion existed in Massa- 
chusetts, and a fleet and several thousand additional 
soldiers were sent to Boston to suppress it. The 
country was on the verge of war. A hasty act might 
at any moment precipitate hostilities. 

2. THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 

354. General Gage's Movements. — In the early months 
of 1775 the situation around Boston grew acute. Gen- 
eral Gage, alarmed at the rebellious spirit of the people, 
fortified Boston Neck and sent expeditions to seize 
collections of military stores that had been made near 
that town. In April he engaged in a more serious 
enterprise, that of arresting the patriot leaders, 
Samuel Adams and John Hancock, who were at the 
village of Lexington, ten miles away, and destroying 
some military stores at Concord, twenty miles away. 

355. Paul Revere's Ride.— It had been intended to 
keep this expedition secret, sending it out late at 




MAP OF THE 
REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



SCALE OF MILES 



1775] 



THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 



179 




night and guarding the roads around Boston with 
mounted patrols. But the patriots discovered the 
design and sent out mounted messengers to warn the 
threatened district. Chief among these was Paul 
Revere, who was sent «- 



to Lexington and Con- 
cord. On the night of 
April 18 the troops, 
eight hundred in num- 
ber, began their march, 
and Paul Revere set 
out on his famous ride. 
Escaping the patrols 
stationed upon the 
road which he fol- 
lowed, he went swiftly 
on, warning the people 
of the coming of the soldiers. At Lexington he 
wakened Adams and Hancock and told them of 
their peril. He was stopped by a patrol of British 
officers before reaching Concord, but succeeded in 
sending on word by a messenger to that point. ^ 

356. The Firing at Lexington. — As a result of Revere's 
activity the troops met with failure and disaster. 
On reaching Lexington in the early morning of April 
19, they saw a body of minute-men drawn up on the 

1 An engraver by trade, Paul Revere was an earnest patriot, 
and had already made long journeys in the public service. On this 
occasion he is said to have waited in Charlestown beside his horse 
until he saw signal lights flash from the steeple of the old North 
Church. These told him that the troops were on the march and he 
at once mounted and rode away on his mission. 



I, 1! i:\ 1 i( I 's If iDi', 



180 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



[1775 



village grocn. Major Pitcairn, commanding the ad- 
vance, rode up to them, crying out: 

"Disperse, you rebels! Throw down your arms and 
disperse!" 

As they did not move, he ordered his men to fire. 
The guns rang out, and seven of the Americans fell 
dead. Tt was a direful discharge. With it the Ameri- 
can Revolution began. 




Th I I'l \ r III 



357. The Fight at Concord. — The soldiers hurried on 
to Concord, l)ut the alarm had spread fast before them 
and when they reached there most of the stores had 
been removed. The minute-men, who were out in 
force, held the bridge and did not hesitate to fire back. 
Men fell on both sides, the patriots held their ground, 
and the British were obliged to retreat. 

358. A Day of Terror. — Whil(> the soldiers tarried at 
Concord, the farmers and villagers were hurrying to 



1775] 



THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 



181 




the scene, arms in hand. The news of the slaughter 

at Lexington spread fast and filled the hearers with 

fury. From behind every wall and tree bullets poured 

upon the retreating troops. The retreat became a fiight 

and before Lexington 

was reached many of 

the soldiers had fallen. 

Here reinforcements 

met them and they had 

a brief interval of rest. 

When they set out 

again the fusillade was 

resumed, and before 

they reached Boston 

nearly three hundred 

of them lay dead or 

wounded on the road. 

359. The Siege of Boston. — Still the news spread and 
still the minute-men marched, with Boston as their 
goal. John Stark of New Hampshire, a soldier of the 
French war, set out in haste at the head of a company 
of his neighbors. Israel Putnam, another tried and 
valiant soldier, left his work in the fields, mounted his 
horse, and rode at speed for Boston. From all sides 
they came, and within three days Boston was besieged 
by sixteen thousand men. The tocsin had sounded. 
New England was in arms, the war had begun. 

360. Ethan Allen at Ticonderoga. — Not only to Boston, 
but elsewhere, the patriots marched. Ethan Allen, 
of Vermont, led a force of "Green Mountain Boys" 
upon the famous Fort Ticonderoga and took posses- 



LiNE OF THE Minute-Men at 
Lexington, Mass. 



182 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1775 

sion of it without a shot.^ Two days later Soth Warner 
captured the fort at Crown Point. These were well 
stored with cannon and ammunition, supplies which 
were sorely needed at Boston. 

361. The Second Continental Congress. — On the same 
10th of May, 1775, in which Fort Ticonderoga was 

captured the new Con- 
gress met in Philadcl- 
pliia, in the historic 
])uilding now known as 
Independence Hall, 
and began its delibera- 
tions, with John Han- 
cock, the Boston 
patriot, for its presi- 
dent. Since the meet- 
-•^/•/'BB '•^S of the former 

Concord Bridge. CoUgrCSS affairs and 

the state of public 
opinion had changed. Then the country was at peace; 
now it was at war. Congress no longer appealed 
to king and Parliament, but called for recruits 
from the colonies and chose George Washington as 
commander-in-chief of the Continental arm3\ It also 
ordered the issue of two million dollars in paper money. 
The outbreak at Boston was an act of war that found 

^ Ethan Allen led his men into the undefended fort and broke 
into the room of the commander, demanding an immediate sur- 
render. "By whose authority?" asked the astounded officer. 
"In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress," 
was the stern reply. There was no resisting this demand and the 
fort was given up. 




1775] THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 183 

support in all the colonies, and conciliation was no 
longer sought. 

362. Bunker Hill. — Events moved rapidly. General 
Artemas Ward was appointed commander of the army 
at Boston. Fresh troops came from England under 
General WilHam Howe, who replaced General Gage. 
The new commander quickly took steps to fortify the 
heights known as Bunker and Breed's Hills, which 
overlooked and commanded the city. But the Ameri- 




:U INS OF Fort Ticonderoga. 

cans had preceded him. On the morning of June 17 he 
was astounded to learn that the "rebels" had occupied 
and intrenched these heights and threatened the city 
from behind their work^:. 

363. The Battle of Bunker Hill. — Howe at once saw 
that he must take these works or leave Boston 
with his army. Before daybreak the ships in the 
harbor opened fire on the works. The forts soon 
followed. Noon had passed before the British were 
ready to attack. Then about three thousand men 
landed in Charlestown and began the march up to the 



184 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



[1775 



intrenchnicnts, behind which lay some fifteen hundred 
men under Generals Putnam and Warren and Colonel 
Prescott. 

The Americans had little ammunition and withheld 
their fire. "Don't fire till you see the whites of their 
eyes" said Prescott. When the word came the mus- 
ketry blazed out and 
the British fell by 
Down 




the hill they went, 
driven as if by a 
storm of iron 
hail. Again they 
charged, and 
again were driven 
back. With diffi- 
culty they were 
brought to the 
charge a third 

time, and now found the Americans destitute of powder. 
Yet they fought stubbornly, using the butt-ends of their 
muskets as war clubs. Howe won the hill but with a 
loss of more than a thousand men. The American loss 
was less than five hundred, many of them only slightly 
wounded. But among the dead was the heroic General 
Warren, a man whose death was deeply felt. 



Boston and Vicinity. 



1775] 



THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 



185 




364. Washington Takes Command. — On the moiiiiiig 
of July 3 General Washington, who had now reached 
the army, sat on his horse under a great elm near 
Harvard College and 
saw the patriot troops 
march past. Brave 
they were, but undisci- 
plined, about fourteen 
thousand men in all, but 
with few muskets and 
cannon and little pow- 
der. A great task lay be- 
fore the new comman- 
der, to make soldiers 
out of this raw material 
and obtain arms and 
ammunition for them. 

365. Canada is Invaded. — Congress was alert. Learn- 
ing that the British leaders in Canada proposed an 
invasion of New York, an expedition was sent to 
Canada, General Montgomery descending Lake Cham- 
plain and taking Montreal, and Benedict Arnold 
leading a force through the unbroken Maine forests. 
Joining their forces they laid siege to Quebec, on which 
an assault was made on the last day of 1775. The 
attack failed, Montgomery being killed and Arnold 
wounded. The siege was kept up until spring, when 
the army withdrew. The costly expedition had proved 
an utter failure. 

366. Congress and the King. — Congress sent a petition 
to London in the summer of 1775, asking the king for 
reconciliation. George III. responded by calling for 



A Drum Used at Bunker Hill 
(in the Bostonian Society Rooms). 



186 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



[1776 



volunteers to put down the rebellion in America. As 
these did not come as fast as he hoped, he hired Ger- 
man troons, obtaining nearly twenty thousand men 
- - _, from the rulers of Hesse- 

Cassel and other small 
German states. The hir- 
ing of these Hessians, as 
they were called, exasper- 
ated the Americans and 
they resolved to fight to 
the bitter end. 

367. Washington's Deci= 
si ve Step. — W a s h i n g t o n 
kej)t up the siege of Boston 
during the autumn and 
winter, drilling the men 
and seeking for arms. 
Early in 177G fifty cannon 
from Ticonderoga reached the camp, hauled thither on 
ox-sleds through the roadless forest. He at once took 
a decisive step. Dorchester Heights, which overlooked 
Boston as did Bunker Hill, remained unoccupied. On 
the morning of March 5 the British, to their surprise 
and dismay, found it occupied and intrenched. 

368. Boston Evacuated. — General Howe was in a 
quandary. The works hooked strong. Yet he must take 
them or leave Boston. The memory of Bunker Hill 
being in his mind he was afraid to repeat the experiment. 
So on March 17 the British army took the only alterna- 
tive left it, marched on board its ships and sailed away 
to Halifax, while the Continental army marched into 
Boston. No hostile army ever set foot in its streets again. 




A Hessian Helmet. 



1776] THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 187 

369. Fort Moultrie Defends Itself. — For a time America 
was free from British soldiers. Washington, fearing 
that an attack would be made on New York, marched 
his army to that city in April. But Charleston was 
the next city assailed. On June 28 the British fleet 
sailed into Charleston harbor and made an attack on 
Fort Sullivan (since known as Fort Moultrie). Built 
of the soft and spongy palmetto logs, the cannon balls 
did no damage to the fort, while the fleet lost heav- 
ily from the fire of Colonel Moultrie.' Troops landed 
and attacked the fort in the rear, but the fire of 
the riflemen drove them off. In the end the fleet set sail, 
carrying away its dead and wounded, and Charleston 
was saved from a foreign foe for more than two years. 

370. All the Colonies in Arms. — The war was not 
confined to Boston and Charleston. Arms and ammu- 
nition were seized by the people in all parts of the South. 
In Virginia Lord Dunmore, the governor, seized some 
powder belonging to the colony and was forced to 
return it. Taking refuge on a British man-of-war, he 
attacked the patriot forces in October, 1775, at Great 
Bridge, near the Dismal Swamp. Being defeated, he 
in revenge burned Norfolk, a city of six thousand 
inhabitants. 

371. Movements Towards Independence. — While these 
military events were taking place, political events of 

1 During the fight a ball struck the flag-staff of the fort and the 
colors fell outside the walls. Sergeant Jasper leaped down, heedless 
of the plunging balls, seized the flag, tied it to a new staff, and raised 
it again. Offered a lieutenant's commission for his bravery the 
next day, he refused it, saying, "I am only a sergeant: I am not 
fit for the company of officers. " 



188 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



L1776 



equal importance went on. In May, 1775, the people 
of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, inspired by 
the news from Lexington and Concord, issued a 
series of resolutions, in which they declared themselves 
free from allegiance to the British crown. On April 
12, 1776, N.orth Carolina authorized its delegates in 
Congress to vote for independence. On May 4 Rhode 
Island, with marked boldness, virtually declared itself 
a free Commonwealth. On May 6, Virginia took a 

like step. Other colon- 
ies took similar signifi- 
cant action. The 
sentiment for freedom 
from Great Britain 
seemed to inspire 
them all. 

372. Common Sense. 
— When the king's 
proclamation calling 
for volunteers to put 
down the rebellion 
reached America, it 
was answered by a 
remarkable pamphlet, entitled "Common Sense," pub- 
lished in Philadelphia by the celebrated Thomas Paine. 
This boldly declared that the time had come for a "final 
separation" from Great Britain. It was read through 
all the colonies and was so stirring in tone that it filled 
many minds with the thirst for liberty. 

373. Congress Takes Action. — This sentiment in the 
colonies could not fail to be reflected in Congress, and 
steps towards a declaration of independence were 




The Committf.k ox the Declaration. 



1770] THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 189 

soon taken. In June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, of 
Virginia, offered the following resolution, "that these 
United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, Free and 
Independent States." It was seconded by John 
Adams, and a committee, consisting of John Adams, 
Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sher- 
man, and Robert R. Livingston, was appointed to 
consider and draw up a declaration in which that 
resolution should be suitably embodied. 

374. The Declaration of Independence. — Thomas Jeffer- 
son, a man noted for his broad views and literary 
skill, was chosen to prepare the declaration, and on 
July 2 Lee's resolution was adopted by the vote of the 
delegates of twelve colonies (those of New York not 
voting). On July 4, 177G, the final action was taken, 
the Declaration of American Independence, as pre- 
sented by the committee, being formally adopted by 
Congress, and signed by John Hancock, the President 
of that body, in that bold hand which, as he said, 
"The King of England can read without spectacles." 

375. The Declaration Signed. — The other delegates 
followed the President in signing. The news of this 
act filled the people with joy. The legend is that 
the Liberty Bell in the old State House was rung until 
it filled the city with its gladsome peal. With the 
signatures to that document the United Colonies of 
Great Britain passed out of existence; the United 
States of America took their place. ^ 

* As they signed John Hancock said, "We must be unanimous: 
there must be no pulling in different ways: we must all hang to- 
gether." "Yes," replied Franklin, "we must all hang together^ 
or else we will all hang separately. " 



190 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1776 

3. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 

376. The British Plans. — Independence had been 
declared in the councils of the nation: it now had to 
be won in the field. The British military leaders had 
formed a definite plan of action to subdue the rebel- 
lious colonies. This was to attack and take New York 
and to gain control of Lake Champlain and the Hudson 
by means of an expedition sent from Canada. B}' this 
it was designed to cut ofT New England from the rest 
of the country and deal with the two sections in detail. 

377. Arnold on Lake Champlain. — The first part of this 
plan succeeded; the second failed. The retreat of 
Arnold from Quebec and Canada opened the path to 
the British, and in the autumn of 177G Sir Guy Carlcton 
ascended Lake Champlain with a fleet and army to 
attack Fort Ticondcroga. General Arnold opposed 
him with a smaller fleet and on October 11 an obstinate 
battle took place on the lake. Arnold lost the battle, 
but gained his end. He escaped with his men after 
handling Carleton so severely that he was obliged to 
abandon his purpose and return to Canatla. 

378. The Battle of Long Island. — Before this date 
Howe had reached the vicinity of New York, with a 
fleet carrying an army of more than twent5'-five thou- 
sand men. Washington awaited him behind works of 
defence on Long Island, south of Brooklyn, but these 
were occupied by an army in every way weaker than 
the force it had to meet. On August 27 Howe attacked 
these works, outflanked them by a long march, and 
defeated the American army, which fell back to the 
works on Brooklvn Heights. While Howe lav before 



1776J THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 191 

these, hesitating when and how to attack, Washington 
skilfully withdrew the troops to New York on a dark 
and foggy night. When the next day dawned the 
British looked for their foes in vain. Not a man of 
them remained. 

379. New York Occupied. — With Long Island lost and 
the rivers open to the British fleet, New York could 
not be held. Part of the fleet sailed up the East River 
and landed troops in Washington's rear. To prevent 
being shut up in the city, he made a hasty retreat, 
abandoning New York to the enemy, but holding the 
country to the north. 

380. Forts Washington and Lee. — For two months the 
armies faced each other, with no engagements except 
an indecisive one at White Plains. But Forts Wash- 
ington and Lee, two works built to command the 
Hudson River, were in danger, the former especially, 
as it was on the New York side of the stream. Wash- 
ington ordered it to be abandoned, but for some 
unfortunate reason his order was not obej^ed and the 
fort was stormed and taken by the British, with its 
garrison of more than two thousand five hundred men. 
Fort Lee, now useless and in danger, was abandoned, 
but the river was not left open to the British fleet, 
a new work being built, in a commanding position, at 
West Point. 

381. The Retreat to the Delaware. — Lord Cornwallis, 
with a strong force, had now crossed the Hudson 
with the probable purpose of marching on Philadelphia. 
Washington prepared to oppose him, and ordered 
General Charles Lee, then at Northcastle, east of the 
Hudson, to join him with the seven thousand men 



192 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



[1776 



under his command. Lee failed to do so and Wash- 
ington, being too weak to face Cornwallis, was forced 
to retreat, keeping 
before the cnem}' 
in his march across 
New Jersey and 
breaking down the 
bridges as he went. 
He finally reached 







The New Jersey Campaign-. 



the Delaware, seized 
all the boats for a long 
distance up and down 
the stream, and crossed 
to Pennsylvania, leav- 
ing Cornwallis unable 
to follow unless the 
river should freeze. 

382. A Period of Dread. — The American cause now 
looked ver)'' dark. Newport had fallen as well as 
New York. Congress had fled in fear from Phila- 
delphia. \Yashington's army was small, ragged and 
disheartened. Few recruits came in. Many believed 
that the revolution was near its end and the triumph 
of Great Britain at hand, and a general feeling of 
depression existed. 

383. The Battle of Trenton. — Washington was one of 
those who did not despair. But he knew that a bold 



1776] 



THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 



193 



stroke was needed to restore the confidence of the 
people. On Christmas night of 1776 he crossed the 
Delaware in the midst of floating ice, while a storm of 
snow and sleet fell on his ragged men. Nine miles 
they marched to the south through the storm and at 
daybreak fell upon a Hessian force stationed at Trenton, 
taking them so by surprise that little resistance was 
made. Their colonel was mortally wounded, one 




Washington Crossing the Delaware. 

thousand prisoners were taken, and the Americans lost 
but four men — two of whom were frozen to death. 

384. Hope Follows Despair. — The result of this un- 
looked for victory was electrical. As the news spread 
depression gave place to hope. The soldiers whose time 
was about to expire agreed to remain. New recruits 
came in. The view of the situation had completely 
changed and the British, in alarm, hastily withdrew 
their detachments from neighboring New Jersey towns, 
lest these might meet with the same fate. 

13 



194 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



[1776 



385. The Fight at Princeton. — Cornwallis, then in 
New York, hurried to Trenton, and on the 2d of 
January faced the Americans, intrenched with a 
weaker force behind a small stream. FeeHng sure of 
success, he deferred his attack till the next morning, 
but was early awakened by a noise that sounded to 
him like distant thunder. What he heard was the 
guns of Washington's army, who had marched away 

during the night, leav- 
ing his fires burning, 
and had fallen on a 
British force stationed 
at Princeton. These 
he defeated, taking 
two hundred prisoners, 
and then marched to 
the heights about 
Morristown, where he 
intrenched himself in 
a strong position. 
386. Results of the 
Victory. — By one bold 
stroke Washington 
had saved Philadelphia 
and reversed the whole situation. The British plan of 
campaign was destroyed. With Washington in that 
position, ready to fall upon any outlying force, Howe 
was obliged to give up his designs upon Philadelphia, 
withdraw his troops and leave Washington master of 
the field. In Europe the news of this skilful and daring 
movement caused a radical change of opinion. Those 
who believed that the American cause was lost changed 




The Spirit of '76. 



1777] THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 195 

their views, and France, which had not forgotten its 
late disasters at British hands in America, viewed the 
situation with pleasure and began to think of avenging 
itself on Great Britain by lending aid to the colonists. 
The Marquis de Lafayette, a young nobleman, fitted 
out a ship at his own expense and offered himself to 
Congress as a volunteer and other able European 
soldiers followed him to America. 

387. The British Plans for 1777.— In 1777 the British 
planned a campaign similar to that attempted in 1776. 
An expedition was to make its way southward from 
Canada by way of the lakes and be joined by a force 
sent up the Hudson by Howe. The latter also pro- 
posed to renew his attempt to take Philadelphia, hop- 
ing to occupy that city before aid from him would be 
needed in the north. This unwise effort to do too much 
resulted in the most serious disaster that could well 
have befallen the British armies. 

388. Howe's Expedition. — While General John Bur- 
goyne was making his way in boats up Lake Cham- 
plain, and Colonel St. Leger, with a force of British 
and Indians, had set out on an overland march from 
Oswego, on Lake Ontario, Howe sought to march 
across New Jersey to Philadelphia. Finding Washing- 
ton too alert, he gave up this project and determined 
to proceed by sea to the head of Chesapeake Bay and 
march from there upon Philadelphia. 

389. Brandywine and Qermantown. — ^All this took time, 
and it was September 11 when the British army, 
eighteen thousand strong, reached Brandywine Creek, 
where Washington awaited with eleven thousand men. 
Howe proved too strong and Washington was driven 



196 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



[1777 




Chew House, Gehmantown. 



back with considerable loss. The British soon after 
occupied Philadelphia, where Washington attacked 

them on October 4. 
This affair took place 
at Germantown, just 
north of the city. It 
was well planned and 
promised success, but 
a dense fog and the 
occupation of a large 
stone house (the Chew 
House) by the Brit- 
ish led to its failure, the Americans being forced 
to retreat. 

390. Burgoyne's March.— While Howe was thus engaged, 
Burgoyne, to whom he hail not given the promised 
support, was following no path of roses. The hounds 
of war were hot upon his track. He had been 
successful in taking Fort Ticonderoga, and finally 
reached Fort Edward, on the upper Hudson, General 
Schuyler, in command of a small American army, 
retiring slowly before him. But Burgoyne was now 
feeling the need of supplies, and had at every step a 
larger army to face, for Schuyler was fast gaining 
reinforcements. Learning that the Americans had 
gathered a supply of stores at Bennington, Vermont, 
Burgoyne despatched Colonel Baum, with a thousand 
men, to capture these badly needed supplies. Baum's 
men were mostly Hessians and their conimantler 
knew little of American warfare. 

391. The Battle of Bennington.— Colonel Stark, a 
veteran of the French and Indian War, awaited them 



1777] 



THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 



197 



with a force of Green Mountain Boys, gathered in 
haste. The old soldier handled the men under his 
command with such skill that by the 10th of August 
he had the enemy surrounded. 

"There are the red-coats," 
said the veteran; "we must 
beat them back to-day or Betty 
Stark is a widow." Beat them 
they did, so severely that only 
about seventy of them got back 
to Burgoyne. The remainder 
were killed or captured. 

392. St. Leger's March. — The 
loss of Baum and his men was 
followed by a still greater mis- 
fortune. St. Leger, who pro- 
posed to meet Burgoyne at 
Albany, and who had been 
joined on his march by a strong 
body of Mohawk warriors, was 
having adventures of his own. 
His first task was to capture 
Fort Stanwix, an American out- 
post work on the Mohawk River. 
The fort had a weak garrison, 

and General Herkimer, who marched to its relief, fell 
into an Indian ambuscade near Oriskany, and was 
mortally wounded and his men severely handled. 

While St. Leger and the Indians were absent in this 
engagement a sortie was made from the fort and his 
camp taken and sacked. Five British flags were 
captured and these were hung upside down above the 




Bitrgoyne's Route. 



198 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1777 

fort while over them waved a rudely made flag of 
stars and stripes, fashioned from scraps of a blue 
jacket and a white shirt, with some bits of red flannel. 
It was the national American flag, recently adopted 
and here first displayed in the American army/ 

393. Arnold's Stratagem. — Schuyler, learning the 
peril of the garrison, despatched General Arnold with 
twelve hundred men for their relief. Arnold, who 
knew something of Indian nature, sent before him a 
half-witted Tory, with instructions to scare the Indians 
with tales of a great American force near at hand. 
The envoy did his work well, declaring that he had 
barely escaped from a vast host, and showing bullet 
holes in his clothes which he declared he had received 
in his flight. His tale so alarmed the Indians that they 
broke into a wild flight. The panic spread to the 
British, who followed in such hot haste as to leave 
their tents and artillery behind. Arnold had defeated 
an army by the mere news of his coming. 

394. Burgoyne in Peril. — The loss of Baum and St. 
Leger, and the failure of Howe to send a force to his 

^ Several flags had so far been seen, one with the device of a 
rattlesnake and the injunction, "Don't tread on me!" also Patrick 
Henry's words, "Liberty or death." The flag first used in Massa- 
chusetts bore a pine tree and the words, "An appeal to heaven." 
Colonel Moultrie's flag at Charleston bore a silver crescent and the 
word "Liberty." Washington's flag at Cambridge had thirteen 
red and white stripes, and the British Union Jack in the corner. 
Another flag had the thirteen stripes with a rattlesnake undulating 
across them. Finally, in June, 1777, the one now in use was adopted, 
with thirteen stars to replace the Union Jack. It was first 
shown at sea on Paul Jones's ship, the Ranger. The number of 
stripes is still retained, but a new star is added for every new .State. 



1777] THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 199 

aid, proved fatal to Burgoyne. He had reached a 
position from which it was difficult either to advance 
or retreat, while the hoped-for aid from Howe did not 
come. Through the arts of political enemies General 
Schuyler was about this time removed from his com- 
mand, and General Gates, a very unfit man, sent to 
replace him. Fortunately Schuyler had already got 
Burgoyne into a trap from which he could not escape. 

395. The End of the Campaign.— On September 19 
a battle was fought at Freeman's Farm, near Saratoga. 
It ended in both parties holding their ground. Two 
weeks later Burgoyne, now in despair, again attacked 
the Americans, losing heavily. Retreating to Saratoga, 
he was there closely besieged. His provisions were gone, 
the Indians and Tories had deserted, nothing remained 
but to surrender. This he did on October 17. 

396. Effect of Burgoyne's Surrender. — The surrender 
of Burgoyne was the turning point in the struggle for 
independence. It filled the Americans w^ith confidence. 
It filled the English w^ith despair. Lord North, the 
mouthpiece of the king, now offered the Americans 
peace, promising everything but independence. He 
was too late, the Americans would accept nothing less 
than independence. They had won at Saratoga what 
has been classed among the decisive battles of the 
world, and had every reason to feel triumphant. 

397. The Winter of 1778. — Washington and his men 
needed something to inspire them with hope during 
the succeeding winter, for it was one passed under 
conditions of dreadful privation and suffering. While 
the British army lived in comfort in Philadelphia, the 
American army spent an intensely cold winter at 



200 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



[1778 



Valley Forge, north of that city, where they sadly 
lacked shelter, food, and clothes. On December 23 
Washington wrote that nearly three thousand of his 
men were ''unfit for duty, because they were barefoot 
and otherwise naked." Their sufferings continued 
during the winter, aggravated by the neglect of Con- 
gress to attend to their wants. In fact, an intrigue 
was organized to deprive Washington of his command 
and to give it to Gates, then in high favor because 



^^HHl&. 











Winter Quarters at Vaixet Forge. 

of his capture of Burgoync's army. Fortunately 
for the country this effort failed. As later events 
proved, its success would have been ruinous. 

398. A Treaty with France. — While the army suffered, 
events favorable to America were taking place. Ben- 
jamin Franklin, then the United States representative 
in France, where his scientific attainments gave him 
great influence, was seeking to make that country the 
ally of his own land. The surrender of Burgoyne 
brought him success and on February G, 1778, a treaty 



1778] 



THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 



201 



was signed in which France recognized the independ- 
ence of the United States and promised assistance in 
its struggle for freedom. 

399, The Aid of France. — France lost no time in 
sending the promised aid. A powerful fleet, carrying 
four thousand troops, entered Delaware Bay in July^ 
hoping to capture the British fleet, but it had taken 




Benjamin Franklin at the Court of France. 



the alarm and fled. The army quickly followed it. 
Sir Henry Clinton had now succeeded Howe in com- 
mand and, fearing to be shut up between the Americans 
and the French, he hastily evacuated Philadelphia. 

400. The Battle of Monmouth. — Washington, who was 
keenly alert to every movement of the enemy, lost no 
time in following the British across New Jersey, 
bringing them to bay at Monmouth on June 28. The 
Americans would undoubtedly have been victorious 



202 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1778 

but for the misconduct of General Lee, who ordered 
a retreat when success was most promising. Washing- 
ton rode up during the retreat, upbraided Lee bitterly 
for his cowardly act, and himself led the men against 
the foe.' He was too late to win the hoped-for triumph 
but during the night CHnton marched his men secretly 
to Sandy Hook, whence he made his way to New York. 

401. Later Events. — The battle of Monmouth was the 
last important one in the North, but there were other 
events of interest in that section. The patriot forces 
had not only the British to contend with, but there 
were many Tories — British sympathizers — in the coun- 
try, who had taken arms in the cause of the invaders, 
and the Iroquois Indians were allies of the British in 
the war. In July, 1778, a band of these Indians and 
Tories made their way into the peaceful valley of 
Wyoming, in Northern Pennsylvania, and committed 
frightful devastations, slaying and burning all before 
them, and forcing the women and children to flee for 
safety into the wilderness. 

402. Sullivan's Campaign. — For this and other atroc- 
ities committed by the Indians General Sullivan was 

* Charles Lee was of English birth, but had served the colonies 
in the French and Indian War, and afterwards served in Europe. 
Seeking the chief command, he was disappointed in being made 
second in command to Washington and jealousy made him insub- 
ordinate. After failing to join Washington in the campaign against 
Cornwallis, he was taken prisoner by a British scouting party, 
and while in New York, as has recently been learned, he acted the 
traitor, giving Howe information about Washington's plans. He 
was subsequently exchanged and rejoined the army, but liis action 
at Moimiouth led to his being tried and suspended, and finally 
expelled from the army. 



1779] THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 203 

sent against them in 1779. He met and completely 
defeated them at Elmira and then marched into their 
country and utterly devastated it, burning their 
villages, destroying their granaries, and leaving them 
without food for the winter that followed. The blow 
was one from which they never recovered. 

403. Clark's Expedition. — Previous to this, similar 
Indian depredations in the west had brought about 
an important operation in that quarter. Governor 
Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, had 
offered a reward for all scalps brought in, a ruthless 
offer that led to many scenes of butchery on the 
frontier. A stop was put to this savage work by 
Colonel Clark,, a stalwart Virginian, who led a force of 
Kentucky hunters into the territory of the northwest, 
took several of the former French frontier settlements, 
and finally, after a desperate march through the over- 
flowed lands on the Wabash, captured Vincennes and 
made Hamilton himself prisoner. This success had 
much to do with saving the northwest to the United 
States in the subsequent treaty of peace. 

404. The Storming of Stony Point. — An important 
event of 1779 was a successful assault on the British fort 
at Stony Point on the Hudson. It was led by General 
Anthony Wayne. On a dark night Wayne led his men 
with unloaded muskets over a causeway that crossed 
the marshes to the fort. Thence they rushed on the 
enemy with the bayonet and in a few minutes the fort 
was in their hands. Removing its valuable stores and 
destroying the works, the victors returned to their camp. 

405. Paul Jones and the Bon Homme Richard. — During 
the war the American operations on the ocean had 



204 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



[1779 




John Paul Jones. 



principally been in the taking of prizes. The most 
successful commander was John Paul Jones, a Scotch- 
man who had entered the American service. His most 
brilliant exploit took place on September 23, 1779, off 
the English coast. With the Bon 
Homme Richard and some smaller 
ships supplied by France, he met 
the Serapis, a frigate much his su- 
perior in guns and efficiency. But 
Jones was a man who did not know 
when he was whipped. He fought 
on until his vessel was ready to sink, 
while its upper works were on fire. 
In the end the Serapis was forced 
to surrender, and Jones transferred 
his men and colors to the prize, leaving his own riddled 
ship to sink. It was one of the most famous sea-fights 
in all history and Paul Jones is ranked among the great- 
est of naval heroes. 

406. Benedict Arnold's Treason. — The final important 
event of the war in the North was one of shame and 
treason. Benedict Arnold, one of the ablest of the 
American generals, who had shown his bravery at 
Quebec, on Lake Champlain, and in the Saratoga 
campaign, ended his career by turning traitor. Left 
in command at Philadelphia after its evacuation by 
the British in 1778, he lived in extravagance and ran 
deeply into debt, resorting in consequence to acts of 
rapacity. A court-martial was called to investigate 
his official conduct and sentenced him to receive a 
reprimand from the commander-in-chief. Although 
this was administered by Washington in very mild and 
conciliatory terms, Arnold, incensed at this inquiry into 



1779] THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 205 

his conduct, grew revengeful and resolved on an act of 
treason. Asking Washington for the command of the im- 
portant fortress of West Point, on the Hudson River, he 
laid plans for the surrender of this post to the British. 

407. The Capture of Major Andre. — General Clinton 
sent Andre, a young major of his army, to confer 
secretly with the traitor. But on Andre's return 
overland he was captured by patriot scouts and proof 
of the plot was found on his person. Arnold fled. 
Andre was hanged as a spy, despite all Chnton's efforts 
to save him. Arnold joined the British arni}^ and 

.did all he could to injure his native land. His later 
years were spent in shame and remorse and he died 
an object of general scorn and contempt. 

408, The State of the Colonies. — Four years of war in 
the North had brought the British only the possession 
of two towns, New York and Newport. Everywhere 
else the colonists had held their own, but not without 
great loss and suffering. Many things were amiss. 
The colonies were not closely united, and there was no 
definite system of finance. The paper money issued 
by Congress had no substantial basis and sank in value 
until it became almost worthless. Congress grew weak 
and inefficient and no regular system of taxation was 
adopted. In some of its moments of urgent need the 
army was supported by loans made by a patriotic 
merchant of Philadelphia, Robert Morris. With the 
lack of system in the colonies, the feebleness shown by 
Congress, and great scarcity of means, the surprising 
thing is that the invaders made so little progress. 
This was mainly due to the inefficiency of their generals 
and the masterly generalship of their able opponent, 
George Washington. 



206 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1778-1780 

4. THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 

409. The South Invaded. — Hitherto, except for the 
attack on Fort Moultrie, the war had not extended 
south of Pennsylvania. But in 1778 the British 
carried their arms to the South, as if they despaired 
of winning the North and hoped to capture and hold 
the southern colonies. Savannah was taken in Decem- 
ber, 1778. Augusta was next captured, and Prevost, 
the British general, advanced on Charleston. Finding 
himself pursued by General Lincoln with a strong force 
of militia, he abandoned the enterprise and returned to 
Savannah. Flere in September, 1779, he was attacked 
by General Lincoln, aided by the French fleet. The at- 
tempt proved a disastrous failure. The Americans were 
repulsed with a loss of more than one thousand men. 

410. Charleston Taken. — In the spring of 1780 Charles- 
ton was attacked by General Chnton with a powerful 
force. For forty days General Lincoln stood out 
against a terrific bombardment by land and sea. On 
May 12 he surrendered and the leading city of the 
South fell into British hands. 

411. South Carolina Overrun. — Leaving General Corn- 
wallis in command at Charleston, Clinton now returned 
to New York, which city had been threatened by 
Washington since the battle of Monmouth. Expedi- 
tions were sent in various directions by Cornwallis 
throughout South Carolina, meeting with little resist- 
ance except that of the partisan commanders Marion, 
Sumter, Pickens, and others. But these were so bold 
and active that they greatly annoyed the invaders 
and made the State a very hot place to hold. 



1780] 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 



207 



412. Gates at Camden. — After vigorous efforts an army 
was raised in North Carolina. It was put under the 
command of General Gates, who now proved himself 
sadly incompetent. Meeting the British at Camden, 
South Carohna, on August 16, 1780, the militia under 
his command broke and fled and the few regiments of 
regulars were overwhelmed. The army was so broken 
and scattered that Gates, who had shown himself inca- 




SlEQE OP Ceakleston. 



pable in the battle, reached a place eighty miles distant 
without a soldier in his train. Sumter's force was 
similarly dispersed two days later by the cavalry of 
Tarleton, the British hard-riding dragoon. With the 
exception of Marion's men, no patriot forces remained 
in South Carolina. 

413. The Fight at King's Mountain. — The first ray of 
hope came on October 7, when a force of British and 
Tories, eleven hundred strong, was met on King's 
Mountain by a body of frontier riflemen, hastily 



208 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



[17S0 



gathered in the new settlements of Tennessee. Their 
attack was vigorous and successful, the invaders being 
totally defeated, more than four hundred and fifty of 
them falling, and the rest being taken prisoners. 

414. Marion, the Swamp Fox. — This success was ably 
seconded by Marion, the most vigiliant and active of 

the partisan leaders, 
known as the Swamp 
Fox from his custom 
of lurking in swamps 
and forests with his 
small body of follow- 
ers, and sallying out 
unexpectedly upon 
detached parties of the 
foe. In this way the 

Gen. Marion AND THE British Officer CUCmy WaS bitterly 

annoyed and suffered 
considerable losses, while all efforts to capture the 
Swamp Fox proved futile.^ 

415. General Greene in Command. — Gates having 
proved a failure, Xathanael Greene, next to Washington 
the ablest of the American generals, was appointed to 
succeed him. With Greene were three efficient Vir- 
ginians* Daniel Morgan, the famous rifleman leader; 
William Washington, a cousin of the commander-in- 

' The story is told that a British officer who was sent to nego- 
tiate an exchange of prisoners with Marion, found him on a sort 
of woodland island in the swamps, and was invited to share his 
dinner. The dinner consisted of sweet potatoes, roasted and 
served on pieces of bark. On his return the officer resigned his 
commission, saying that it was useless to fight against men who 
were content to live on roots while fighting for their country. 




1781J THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 209 

chief; and Henry Lee, a dashing cavahy leader, known 
as Light-Horse Harry, and father of General Lee of the 
Civil War. But very few men were in arms, and it 
took active efforts to gather about two thousand men, 
these being only half clothed and half supplied with 
arms and food. 

416. The Battle of Cowpens. — With these new men at 
the helm, the tide began to turn. Morgan, with nine 
hundred men, met a superior force under Tarleton at 
Cowpens, South Carolina, January 17, 1781, and 
handled the British so roughly that Tarleton's force 
was nearly annihilated, while the Americans won their 
victory with very little loss. 

417. Masterly Retreat. — And now Greene's skill and 
ability were shown. Morgan, pursued by Cornwallis, 
crossed the Catawba and joined Greene, who made a 
most skilful retreat before his powerful antagonists, 
crossing the Yadkin and finally the Dan, and drawing 
the enemy across North Carolina to the borders of 
Virginia. When Cornwallis, drawn much too far from 
his base of supplies, gave up the pursuit and turned to 
retreat, he found Greene hot on his track, harassing 
him at every step. 

418. Guilford Court=House. — At Guilford Court-House, 
now Greensboro, North Carolina, Greene felt strong 
enough to venture a battle. In this the militia broke 
and fled, but the Continentals held their ground, and 
though they were finally forced back, the British had 
been dealt with so severely that no pursuit was at- 
tempted. Cornwallis, in fact, was in no condition for 
a further fight or a return to Charleston and was forced 
to retreat to Wilmington, North Carohna, which he 
reached in very bad plight. 

14 



210 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



[1781 



419. Hobkirk Hill.— Greene soon gave up the pursuit 
of Cornwallis and made his way southward, where he 
was joined by Marion, Sumter, and Pickens at Hob- 
kirk Hill, near Camden, South Carohna. Here on 
April 25, 1781, he was attacked by Lord Rawdon and 
defeated. But Rawdon did not find his victory much 
of a success over his vigilant enemy, for he soon with- 
drew to Charleston, leaving South Carohna to be 
occupied by his enemies. 

420. The War Ends in the Carolinas. — Greene was so 
active that one after another of the British posts fell 
into his hands, and though he was defeated in a fight 
at Eutaw Springs, the British, as before, found it 
expedient to retreat. Greene's activity, and the daring 
of Marion, Sumter and others of his aids, quickly com- 
pleted the work of con- 
quest, and by the end 
of the year the British 
were closely shut up 
in Charleston and 
Savannah. 

421. The Campaign in 
V i r gi n i a. — Cornwallis 
did not find it ex- 
pedient to return to 
South Carolina. From 
his position at Wil- 
mington it was easier 
to reach Virginia and take part in the fighting that was 
going on there. Benedict Arnold was ravaging the Vir- 
ginia plantations, a small force under Lafayette alone 
opposing him. Cornwallis now took chief command, 




Cornwallis 's Headquarters at 

YORKTOWN. 



1781J 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 



211 



but after a campaign of destruction, finding Lafayette 
reinforced, he made his way to Yorktown, on York 
River, near the Chesapeake Bay, and there fortified 
himself to await expected reinforcements from New 
York. It was a movement rife with disaster, as he 
was soon to discover. 

422. Washington's Opportunity. — During all this period 
Washington had kept near New York, watching 
CHnton. But at this juncture a large French fleet 
arrived from the West 

Indies. A considerable 
body of French troops had 
also joined the American 
army. A splendid oppor- 
tunity for a master stroke 
presented itself to Wash- 
ington's alert mind and he 
accepted it with the quick 
decision of a great soldier. 
Sending orders to the 
French fleet to sail to the Chesapeake, he broke camp 
himself, making strategic movements as if he intended 
to attack New York, and then marching with all speed 
southward. Reaching the head of Chesapeake Bay, he 
transported his army by vessels to the vicinity of 
Yorktown, which was quickly invested. 

423. The Siege of Yorktown. — This skilful manoeuvre 
caught Cornwallis in a trap. He suddenly found 
Yorktown surrounded by a strong army while a power- 
ful French fleet closed the Chesapeake and cut off aid 
from that direction. No reinforcements had come 
from CHnton and his situation quickly became 




Siege of Yorktown. 



212 



THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 



[1781 



desperate. For a week his works were bombarded by 
army and fleet, then CornwalHs, finding escape im- 
possible, surrendered his army of seven thousand men. 
On October 19, 1781, the captive army marched from 
the works and Cornwallis delivered up his sword. 

424. "It is All Over."— "It is all over!" cried Lord 
North, when he received the news of this disaster. 




yr JW, 



-^t^K.-^ 



1 




Surrender of Cor.nw allis. 



Soon after he resigned his post of prime minister, 
and a new ministry, one in favor of peace, took the 
reins of government in England. 

425. The War Ends.— The king and Parliament ac- 
cepted the inevitable. It was evidently impossible for 
them to subdue the colonists. Litth^ further fighting 
took place. Parliament, in March, 1782, resolved to 
close hostilities. Savannah was evacuated in July and 
Charleston in December. New York was held until 
the negotiations for peace should end. 



I7S3] THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 213 

426. The Treaty of Peace. — A treat}' of peace, nego- 
tiated on the part of the United States by Benjamin 
Franklin, John Adams and John Ja}^, was signed at 
Paris September 3, 1783, and the independence for 
which the country had fought so long was gained. 
On November 25 the British sailed away from New 
York and Washington marched in. He soon after 
resigned his commission and reached Mount Vernon 
in time to spend a joyous Christmas at his home. 
Thus ended in triumph the long struggle for American 
independence. 

SUMMARY OF REVOLUTIONARY EVENTS. 

1760-1773. An attempt is made to tax the Americans, who refuse 
to pay any taxes not laid by their own assemblies. A stamp tax is 
passed, but the people defy it and destroy the stamps. A tax is laid 
on tea, but the tea ships are ordered away and the tea sent to Boston 
is thrown overboard. 

1773-1775. The first Continental Congress meets. Soldiers are sent 
from Boston to Lexington and Concord, but are attacked by the 
people, who besiege Boston. A battle is fought at Bunker Hill. Con- 
gress makes Washington commander-in-chief. 

1776. The British evacuate Boston and are repulsed at Charleston. 
A Declaration of Independence is made on July 4. Washington's 
army is defeated on Long Island and New York taken by the Britisli. 
Washington retreats to the Delaware, and on Christmas attacks and 
captures a Hessian force at Trenton. 

1777. Burgoyne marches from Canada and Howe sails to Chesa- 
peake Bay, defeats Washington and captures Philadelphia. Burgoyne 
is defeated and forced to surrender at Saratoga. 

1778. Washington's army pass a terrible winter at Valley Forge. 
A treaty is made with France, a French fleet is sent to the Delaware, 
and the British leave Philadelphia. Washington follows and fights 
them at Monmouth. Settlers are massacred by Indians at Wyoming. 
The British invade the South and take Savannah. 

1779. General Wayne storms and captures Stony Point. Paul 
Jones wins in a famous sea fight off the coast of England. The British 
defeat General Lincoln at Savannah. 



214 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 

1780. Charleston is captured by the British fleet and army and 
South Carohna is overrun, General Gates being badly worsted at 
Camden. At King's Mountain the frontier riflemen win a notable 
victory. Marion and Sumter keep up the fight. 

1781. Morgan defeats Tarleton at Cowpens. Greene retreats and 
draws Cornwallis to the Virginia border, then fights him at Guilford. 
South Carolina is recovered. Cornwallis invades Virginia and encamps 
at Yorktown. He is besieged by Washington and forced to surrender. 

1782-1783. Parliament votes to discontinue hostilities, and on 
September 3, 1783, a treaty of peace is signed at Paris, in which the 
independence of the United States is fully recognized. 

TOPICS FOR REVIEW. 

Oral or written. 

1. Discontent in the Colonies. — Old ideas of the use of colonies — 
causes of discontent — the claim of the right of taxation — resistance of 
the tax on stamps and tea — the Continental Congress — Paul Revere 
and Lexington. 

2. The American Revolution. — The siege of Boston — the Dec- 
laration of Independence — leading events in the war — duration — how 
success was gained — result of the conflict — its famous leaders. 

reference books. 

1. Winsor's Handbook of the Revolution. 2. Lossing's Field Book 
of the Revolution. 3. Bancroft's United States. 4. Greene's American 
Revolidion. 5. Ti&\C& Critical Period of American History. 6. Dodge's 
George Washington. 7. Tyler's Patrick Henry. 8. Morse's Benjamin 
Franklin. 9. Fisher's Struggle for American Independence. 



PART VI. 

THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 



1. THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE 

427. Boundaries of the New Nation. — With the signing 
of the treaty of peace in 1783, the United States was 
fairly launched upon the world, its freedom as a nation 
won, its independence everywhere acknowledged. 
Though of small extent,' compared with its present 
area, it already had space enough to contain a great 
nation. Under the terms of the treaty its territory 
extended from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi 
River, and from Canada to Florida. The region west 
of the Mississippi was held by Spain, as also Florida, 
which Great Britain now restored to its original owner. 
This shut off the United States from access to the Gulf 
of Mexico, since Florida then extended in a strip. fifty 
miles wide along the gulf coast to Louisiana. Thus on 
all the south and west the new nation was bounded 
by Spanish territory, while British territory bounded 
it on the north. 

428. The Population of the Country. — At the period of 
the Revolution the population of the colonies is esti- 
mated to have been more than two and a half millions. 
These were mainly concentrated between the moun- 
tains and the sea, few settlers having yet found their 
way across the mountain barrier to the broad plains 
of the West. A few years before the ReA^olution James 
Robertson had begun the settlement of Tennessee, 

^215 



t 



216 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1790 

Daniel Boono had made his wa}^ into the wilderness of 
Kentucky, and a small outpost of adventurers had 
penetrated into the Ohio country, but it was not until 
after the Revolution that the settlement of this great 
region gave indications of rapid progress. 

429. Condition of the People. — Though after the sur- 
render at Yorktown peace succeeded war, the country 
was still in a desperate strait. Its commerce was 
destroyed, its trade and manufactures were of slight 
importance, many of its towns and villages were 
^ ruined, its paper sub- 

i ' stitute for money was 

almost worthless. The 
treasury was empty of 
real money and Con- 
gress was unable to 
pay its debts. During 
the war some money 

One of Robert Morris's Ox Teams had beCU borrOWCd in 

Transporting Money. 

.Europe, but Congress 
depended mainly on paper currency, which sank in 
value until by the summer of 1780 it took one hun- 
dred and fifty dollars of it to buy a bushel of corn 
and two thousand dollars to obtain a suit of clothes. 
Only for the help of Robert Morris in raising money to 
aid the army in its final campaigns, Washington could 
not have made his march to Yorktown and tlie war 
for in(lei)endence might have failed. 

430. Where the People Dwelt. — At the date of the first 
census, in 1790, the population had reached nearly 
four millions, Virginia, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, 
and Massachusetts then being the most populous states, 




1790] THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE 217 

while Philadelphia, New York, and Boston were the 
leading cities. The population was largely confined to 
the sea-coast region, most of the interior being still a 
forest-covered wilderness. The towns were small and 
far apart, being most numerous in New England. In 
the South, with the exception of Baltimore, Charleston, 
Savannah, and a few other coast towns, one saw only 
a country of farms and plantations with some scattered 
villages. 

431. Settlement of the West. — In 1790, when the census 
was taken, an army of sturdy pioneers was invading 
the West. Tennessee and Kentucky had been settled 
so actively that they now contained about one hundred 
thousand people, and many hardy settlers had made 
their way into the Northwestern Territory. In 1788 
Cincinnati was founded and about ten thousand immi- 
grants reached Marietta and its vicinity. 

432. The Pioneers of the North. — The Ohio offered an 
easy channel of communication from the mid-region, 
but the pioneers from the northern country had to 
advance overland and with much more difficulty. Their 
vanguard was a line of emigrant wagons, the drivers 
of which were obliged to make roads for themselves as 
they advanced. They would halt at a promising place, 
clear off the trees, build rude log houses, and cultivate 
the land for a year or two; then, as the settlement 
began to thicken, would take to their wagons again, 
leaving their clearings for those who followed. It was 
like a great army of invasion, before w^hose advance 
the forest fell and the Indians unwillingly retired. 
In its rear farms appeared and towns and villages 
sprang up. 



218 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1790 

433. The Work of the People. — Most of the people were 
engaged in agriculture, sheep and corn being the lead- 
ing products of the New England farms, w^hile the 
Middle States became famous for wheat, and on the 
great plantations of the South large crops of tobacco, 
rice, corn, etc., were grown. Cotton did not become 
a leading crop until after 1793, when the cotton gin 
was invented. North Carolina yielded much pitch, tar, 
and turpentine, while the supply of lumber in all 
quarters seemed inexhaustible. This formed the 
principal fuel of the country, though near the mines 
soft coal was burned. 

434. Manufactures and Commerce. — Though the old 
restrictions to manufacture and commerce had passed 
away with the British rule, these industries only slowly 
developed. While the farmers tilled the ground with 
poor tools, their wives and daughters spent their spare 
time in spinning and weaving at home. In the winter 
the men busied themselves in making their farming 
implements and articles of furniture, hammering out 
nails for their own use and forging rude iron plates for 
ploughshares. Commerce showed some activity, espe- 
cially in New England and in the ports of New York 
and Philadelphia, but the American manufacturers 
found the competition with England severe, and the 
few workshops that existed could hardly compete with 
the cheap British goods. Yet tobacco and other 
products of the land brought high prices and the wealth 
of the country soon increased, people beginning to live 
in finer houses, dress better and buy superior furniture. 

435. Within the Cities. -Tn 1790 Philadelphia had 
about forty-two thousand inhabitants, New York 



1790] 



THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE 



219 



thirty-three thousand, and Boston eighteen thousand 
Charleston and Baltimore were the largest cities of the 
South, Savannah being still quite small. The cities 
resembled country towns, Boston, for instance, having 
unpaved streets and no flagged sidewalks. There were 
some handsome dwellings, but most of the houses were 
not what we would now call comfortable. In New York 
oil-lamps were used to light Broadway at night and it 
was thought a splendid avenue, though 
it was a short one, soon running into 
the open country. Philadelphia, with 
its broad, straight streets, contrasted 
favorably with the narrow and crooked 
thoroughfares of Boston and New York. 

436. Life on the Frontier. — In the 
country, where the bulk of the people 
lived, manners were more primitive and 
life much ruder. Hard work faced the 
farmer and his family the whole year 
through. The frontier settlers passed 
rough, severe lives, their houses being 
small and rude, furniture plain and 

scanty, and most of the comforts of civilization want- 
ing. They had to grind corn for bread between two 
stones and obtain meat by aid of the rifle. When at 
work their guns were always left close at hand, for the 
redman of the forest was an ever present danger. 

437. Wealth or Poverty. — In those days there were few 
wealthy and few very poor people, the means of the 
inhabitants being largely equal. Very few had an 
income of as much as ten thousand dollars a year, and 
the people as a rule were simple in their manners, expen- 




Pine-Tree Lan- 
tern. 



220 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1783 

sive living being rarely indulged in. But the rich people 
of the cities made considerable display, dressing more 
showih^ than the same class does to-day. The gentle- 
men, on occasions of state, wore white satin vests and 
white silk stockings, with velvet or broadcloth coats, 
while the ladies dressed in rich silks or satins, and had 
their hair treated with powder and pomatum and raised 
like a tower above their heads. Snuff-taking was 
common among gentlemen, and to offer the snuff-box 
was an ordinary act of politeness. 

438. Social Life. — Fine balls were given, and at Presi- 
dent Washington's receptions the pomp and show 
rivalled that of the courts of Europe. Music was 
enjoyed, but the theatre was considered immoral and 
was little patronized. Amusements were few and 
simple and books and newspapers scarce. Education 
had not yet made much progress, and the art of read- 
ing was not the ordinary accomplishment it is to-day, 
while the long hours of labor left little time for recrea- 
tion or home study. 

2. FROM CONFEDERATION TO CONSTITUTION 

439. Discontent in the Army. — The treaty of peace came 
none too soon, for the new republic was in a serious 
condition financially and politically. Great discontent 
existed in the army on account of the soldiers being 
unpaid, and in 1781 there had been a meeting among 
the troops on this account. In June, 1783, a band of 
drunken soldiers in Philadelphia became so violent in 
their demands for pay that Congress fled from the 
city in alarm. The mutinous feeling spread widely 
through the army, some of its officers going so far as to 



17S3] FROM CONFEDERATION TO CONSTITUTION 221 



7wentj^ JDdlars. . No. s/^y/' 

t&'ZtsxixUrKeiXie /.(j^g^^sH-^ 

TWENTY SPAifilH ''■^4^^^ <!, 



ask Washington to make himself king, a proposition 
which he rejected with indignation. Others proposed 
to seize the government and hold it until they should 
be paid, but Washington prevailed on them to desist 
from this treasonable scheme. On April 19, 1783, the 
eighth anniversary of the fight at Lexington, the 
soldiers were sent home on furlough, and the army 
was disbanded in November of that year. 

440. Popular Discontent. — Congress had been given 
no power to tax the people, and the States found it 
difficult to raise money 
from them under the 
depressed condition of 
affairs. Many of the 
people were so laden 
with debt as to be un- 
able to pay taxes, and 
this was especially the 
case in Massachusetts, 
where the farmers had 
been made poor by the war, many of them being 
hard pressed by their creditors. 

441. The Shays Rebellion. — This state of affairs led in 
August, 3 780, to a revolt, in which two thousand men 
joined, under the leadership of Daniel Shays, a captain 
in the late war. First surrounding the court-house and 
putting an end to all actions for debt, they became 
emboldened by success and began to burn and plunder, 
finally attacking the arsenal at Springfield. After some 
time a force was collected and the outbreak was re- 
pressed in February, 1787. 




Continental Paper Monet. 



222 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC fl7Sl 

442. The Articles of Confederation. — Politically the 
country was in a weak and disorganized state. Though 
it had been named the United States of America, it was 
very feebly united. In 1777 Congress had adopted 
what were called ''Articles of Confederation and Per- 
petual Union." These had been ratified by all the 
States by 1781, but the Confederation was far from 
being a close union, each state claiming still to be a 
sovereign commonwealth and little power being given 
the central government. 




Washington vno I.ak.vyette at Mt. Vernon. 

443. The Weakness of Congress.— The Articles gave 
Congress no power to lay taxes or to call out soldiers. 
It could only ask the States for men and money and 
wait until they chose to give them. If it borrowed 
money, it had no means of repaying it: if it made a 
treaty, it had no power to enforce it, it could merely 
recommend and must depend upon the States to act. 



17S51 VnOM CONFEDERATION TO CONSTITUTION 223 

And this the hitti'r were slow in doing. There was a 
heavy war debt, but they failed to raise money for its 
payment. Of the taxes assessed on the States in 1783 
only one-fifth had been paid in 178;"), and Congr(>ss was 
left penniless before the demands of the country's 
creditors. Washington's significant remark, "\\v are 
one nation to-day and thirteen to-morrow," clearly 
expressed the situation. There was no actual union; 
the States were jealous of one another and of Congress; 
it was a question whether in the (>nd there would bo 
one strong nation or thirteen weak ones. 

444. State Quarrels. — Aside from the failure to support 
Congress, there were ([uarrels between the States ui)on 
boundary and other (luestions, and some of them 
began to interfere with freedom of trade with one 
another, exacting tariff charges at their borders and 
passing laws that restricted freedom of navigation. 
They were acting in th(>se respects, as Washington had 
said, like separate nations. 

445. The Treaty with England Ignored. — It had been 
agreed in the treaty of peace that the property of 
Tories should be respected and that British merchants 
might collect debts due in America. This agreement' 
was not k{>j)t and the Tories were treated so badly 
that within two years more than one hundred thou- 
sand of them left the country, Parliament having to 
pay many of them for th(Mr losses. In retaliation 
the British government refused to deliver several 
military posts on the northern frontier and passed 
laws injurious to American commerce. The lack of 
commercial unity between the States prevented them 
from taking steps to preserve their trade. 



224 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1785 

446. The Northwest Territory. — As may be seen from 
the above statement, the new nation was by no means 
strong or soundly united. Congress had only one means 
of meeting its engagements, this being its possession 
and control of the Northwest Territory, the wide area 
of land lying north of the Ohio and west of the Alle- 
ghany Mountains. Several States had claimed this 
territory, in whole or in part, but some of those which 
had no claim to it had objected to signing the Articles 
of Confederation unless this territory should be yielded 
to the United States. 

447. The Claims Yielded. — Maryland was most persist- 
ent in this demand and refused to enter the Confedera- 
tion until all the States had agreed to yield their claims 
to western lands. This was finally done, Maryland 
signed January 30, 1781, and the first Congress under 
the Confederation met on March 2 of that year. 
It replaced the Second Continental Congress, which 
had continued until that time. The claims in the 
Northwest were all given up — with some small reser- 
vations — by 1785, and the Southern States also 
gradually yielded their claims on western territory, 

'Georgia, the last, doing so in 1802. 

448. The New Congress. — The Congress called under 
the Articles of Confederation was restricted to not less 
than two or more than seven members for any State. 
In it were concentrated all the powers granted by the 
States, legislative and executive alike, there being, no 
president or executive department. Its main difficulty 
lay in lack of funds. Though the great regions of fer- 
tile land put at its disposal by the abandonment of the 
Northwest claims promised it a considerable future rev- 



1786] FROM CONFEDERATION TO CONSTITUTION 225 

enue, it was not yet available and Congress found itself 
sadly hampered by debts which it was unable to pay. 

449. Congress Fails to Obtain New Powers. — Congress, 
aware of its weakness, and feeling that the country 
was in a critical condition, which could not safely 
continue, asked for an amendment to the Articles of 
Confederation giving it the power to lay a duty on 
imported goods. To this most of the States agreed, 
but some of them refused and the matter fell through. 
At this refusal the leading statesmen of the country 
were in despair, and Washington felt hopeless of the 
future of the country. Fortunately there was one 
saving feature in the situation. This was the military 
weakness of the States, and their fear that if disunited 
they might be attacked one by one by England, and 
lose their hard-won independence. Here was an im- 
pending danger thajb prevented them from going too 
far in their national aspirations, and made some form 
of union indispensable. 

450. A Series of Conventions. — The need of increasing 
the powers of the central government had grown so 
evident that a movement in that direction was made 
almost without intention. A meeting was held at Mt, 
Vernon in 1785 to consider the rights of Virginia and 
Maryland in the waters of Chesapeake Bay, and this 
led, at the suggestion of James Madison, to a conven- 
tion of delegates from the States at Annapolis in 1786 
to take steps for the general regulation of commerce. 
A discussion upon the unsatisfactory state of the 
country took place at both these conventions, and the 
need of a stronger government was so deeply felt that 
a new convention, with wider aims, was called to meet 

15 



226 



THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 



[1787 



at Pliila(leli)hia in 1787. This, clue to Alexander 
Hamilton, had for its purpose an extension of the 
powers of the central government. 

451. The Constitutional Convention. — The convention 
of 1787 was the most momentous in its results of any 
ever held in our country. Feeling its importance, and 
now fully realizing the necessity of some definite. action, 




Interior of Independence Hall. 

all the states l:)ut Rhode Island sent delegates, these 
including the ablest men in the land, some of them 
among the ablest statesmen an}" land has ever known. 
Washington was chosen its president. Its member- 
ship included Franklin, Hamilton, Madison, Robert 
Morris, Gouverneur Morris and others of high repute. 
Its sessions, beginning May 25, and ending September 
17, 1787, were held in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, 
in which the Declaration of Independence had been 
signed eleven years before. 



1787] FROM CONFEDERATION TO CONSTITUTION 227 

452. Purpose of the Convention. — There were differ- 
ences of opinion among the members regarding the pur- 
pose and powers of this convention. Many held that it 
had authorit}^ only to revise the Articles of Confedera- 
tion, but Hamilton declared that any such revision 
would be useless, and that a completely new system of 
federation was needed. His opinion was accepted and 
the sessions began. 

453. Behind Closed Doors. — The work of the conven- 
tion was performed in secret. Its sessions continued for 
four months. Some of the delegates were so persistent 
in their demands for State privileges that only the 
feehng that the safety of the country demanded some 
final action prevented a disruption of the body. In 
the end, by a series of compromises, a harmonious 
result was reached and the Constitution of the United 
States came into being. These compromises were the 
following: 

1. The small States feared being outvoted by the 
large ones. This was avoided by giving all of the States 
equal representation in the Senate. 

2. The States as sovereign bodies had alone been 
represented in the preceding Congress. An elective 
House of Representatives was now provided to take 
care of the rights of the people. 

3. The Franchise demands of slave holding States 
were settled by counting every five slaves as the equiv- 
alent of three white men in fixing the basis of repre- 
sentation. 

4. The necessity of an Executive head to the govern- 
ment was met by providing for the election of a Presi- 
dent and Vice President. 



228 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [178.S 

5. A balance wheel to Congress was provided in the 
Supreme Court, it being decided that any law which 
this court should pronounce to be out of accordance 
with the Constitution should cease to be effective. 

The remarkable document produced by the con- 
vention was signed September 17, 1787, and sent to 
Congress for transmission to the States, where it gave 
rise to strenuous debates. No such thorough and revo- 
lutionary work had been looked for, and, while it met 
with much approval, many feared 
that it would lead to undue control 
of the States by the central govern- 
ment, and it was vigorously opposed 
even by such ardent patriots as 
Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams. 
These, with other strong advocates 
of State rights, became the leaders of 
a strong party in opposition, but the 
party which became known as the 

Patrick Hknry. , ,. , , . 

Federalist earnestly advocated it, 
believing that a strong central government was necessary 
for the preservation alike of the States and the Union. 

454. The Constitution Ratified. — The strongest oppo- 
sition to the new Constitution arose in New York and 
Virginia, but one by one the States ratified it, nine 
States, the number fixed upon to make it the law of 
the land, doing so by June 21, 1788. It was not rati- 
fied by Rhode Island until May 29, 1790, though it 
had then been in effect for two years. The public ap- 
preciation of it was shown in popular processions, in 
which the Union was indicated by the "Ship of State" 
and other emblems. 




1788] FROM CONFEDERATION TO CONSTITUTION 229 

455. Character of the New Government. — There was 
much reason for the enthusiastic acceptance by the 
people of the new Constitution. Under it a strong 
government had replaced a weak one. While each 
State retained control of its internal affairs, all powers 
of general government were given to Congress and the 
President. These were authorized to form and control 
an army and a navy; to make and enforce treaties; 
to declare war and conclude peace; to coin money, 
lay taxes, regulate commerce, and make laws for the 
nation at large. No State could now make laws which 
would infringe upon the rights of other States. 

456. Features of the Constitution. — The new govern- 
ment embraced three bodies: one to make laws, one 
to execute them, and one to decide that they were in 
agreement with the Constitution. 

Congress, the legislative or law-making body, con- 
sisted of a Senate, elected by the State legislatures and 
representing the States, and a House of Representa- 
tives, elected by and representing the people. 

The executive body consisted of a President, to 
execute the laws and represent the nation in its dealings 
with foreign powers, and a Vice President, who served 
as President of the Senate. The President had the 
power to veto or annul any act of Congress of which 
he did not approve, but it could be passed over his 
veto by a two-thirds vote of both houses. 

The duty of the Supreme Court, consisting of a 
number of eminent judges, was to consider all acts of 
Congress the validity of which was called in question, 
and decide whether or not they were in accordance 
with the requirements of the Constitution. If not 



230 



THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 



[1789 



found so, they ceased to be laws, it being requisite 
that every law, whether of the nation or the States, 
must agree with the terms of the Constitution. 

3. WASHINGTON'S ADMLXISTRATION 

From 1789 to 1797 

457. The First Presidential Election. -The Constitution 
having been ratified, it became necessary to elect a 
President and Congress to replace the Congress of the 
Confederacy. The controversy over the ratification of 

the Constitution had divided the 
people into two parties, the Feder- 
alist and the Anti-Federalist, but 
both of these fixed upon George 
Washington as the only man to be 
considered for the Presidency. As 
it w^as held that the country owed 
to him its independence, it was felt 
that on him alone should be con- 
ferred the highest honor in its gift. 
Elections were held in ten of the 

States and Washington was chosen unanimously. John 

Adams was elected Vice President.^ 

458. Washington's Journey. — When news of his elec- 
tion reached Washington, he left his home at Mt. Vernon 
and journeyed to New York, the city selected as the 

» By the terms of the Constitution votes were cast, not directly 
for the candidates, but indirectly for a number of electors in each 
State, who afterwards met and cast their votes for two persons, 
the one receiving the highest number of votes being declared Presi- 
dent, the other Vice President. As this system proved un.satis- 
factory in operation, it was soon changed for the present system, 
in which votes are cast for both President and \'ice President. 




George Washington. 



1789J WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 231 

temporary seat of the new government. His journey 
was like a triumphal procession, the people thronging 
to see him pass, building arches of honor, and strewing 
flowers on the roads over which his carriage moved. 

459. The President Inaugurated.— The 4th of March, 
1789, had been selected as the day on which the new 
government should begin/ but in those days of poor 




Washington Deiiverino his In \ri;i'RAL Address in New Yokk. 

roads and difficult travel Congress came together 
slowly and the inauguration of Washington was delayed 
until April 30. He took the oath of office on the 

^ The Congress of the Confederation had appointed the first 
Wednesday in January, 1789, as the day to choose electors, the 
first W^ednesday in February as the day of meeting of the electors 
to elect a President, and the first Wednesday in March as the day 
for the President to take his seat. As this happened to be the 4th 
of March in that year, this became the fixed date for the beginning 
of the Presidential term. 



232 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1790 

balcony of Federal Hall in New York City, in which 
the new Congress was then in session; the ringing of 
bells and firing of cannon testifying to the joy of the 
people, from whom went up a ringing shout of, "Long 
live George Washington, President of the United 
States!" 

460. The Cabinet Formed. — AYashington selected as his 
advisers and assistants in his new duties, Thomas 
Jefferson as Secretary of Foreign Affairs (now called 
Secretary of State), Alexander Hamilton as Secretary 
of the Treasury, Henry Knox as Secretary of War, and 
Edmund Randolph as Attorney-General. These, with 
later Secretaries, afterwards became known as the 
President's Cabinet. One of the first acts of Congress 
was to select a permanent place for its meetings, 
Philadelphia being chosen for the ten years 1790 1800, 
after which the national capital was to be removed to 
a new city, to be built on the Potomac River and 
named AYashington in honor of the President. 

461. Amendments to the Constitution. — It was early 
evident that the makers of the Constitution had failed 
to cover the whole field of public affairs, and it soon 
became necessary to add a number of amendments, 
most of them intended to guard the rights of the people 
and the States. Twelve such amendments were pro- 
posed in 1791, and ten of them adopted. One was 
adopted in 1798 and one in 1804. There were no other 
amendments until after the Civil War. 

462. New States. — Before the century ended three new 
States were added to the original thirteen. The Green 
Mountain region, lying betwe(>n New Hampshire and 
New York, had been claimed bv both of these States. 



1790J WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 233 

but its people vigorously resisted these claims, which 
were given up by 1789. The territory was admitted 
as the State of Vermont in 1791. Kentucky, which 
had been hold by Virginia as a county, was made a 
State in 1792, and Tennessee, originall}^ a part of 
North Carolina, was admitted to the Union as a 
State in 1790. 

463. The Question of Finance. — Among the difficulties 
which confronted the government, the most important 
w^as that of revenue. The Continental currency had 
disappeared from circulation, the treasury w^as empt}^ 
and the country had no credit abroad. The States 
were too deeply in debt themselves to come freely to 
the aid of Congress. This difficulty had confronted 
the nation since the days of the Revolution and it now 
demanded prompt and adequate solution. 

464. Hamilton's System of Revenue. — Fortunately for 
the nation, it had as its Secretary of the Treasury 
Alexander Hamilton, a genius in finance.^ He saw at 
a glance the proper means to supply the needed funds, 
and persuaded Congress to assume the debts of the 
States, amounting to more than twenty million dollars, 
so that the total burden of State and national debt. 
about seventy-five millions in all, should lie on the 
general government. To meet it, he sought to avoid 
the unpopular measure of a direct tax, and estabhshed 
an indirect one by having a moderate duty laid on 

* Alexander Hamilton was born in the West Indies, came to the 
American colonies as a boy, and served as a soldier in the Revolu- 
tion, becoming Washington's aide-de-camp. A man of remarlcable 
ability, it was due to his efforts that the Constitution was ratified 
by New York. He was killed in a duel witli Aaron Burr in 1S04, 



234 



THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 



[1791 



imported goods. As our commerce was then large, a 
low tariff soon yielded enough for the immediate needs 
of the government, while it had the healthy effect of 
encouraging American manufactures. 

465. American Credit Restored. — The surplus from the 
tariff and the funds arising from the sales of public 
lands enabled the nation gradually to pay its debts, 
and bv re-establishing its credit reduced the demand 




AKfjfption by Lady Washimitox. 



for immediate payment. Now that interest was 
promptly paid and the ability of the nation to meet its 
obligations was assumed, its creditors were quite 
wilHng to let their claims stand as investments. Addi- 
tional financial measures were the founding of a 
United States Bank in 1791 and a mint for the coin- 
age of money in 1792. So successful was Hamilton 
in his financial measures that Daniel Webster after- 
wards said of him: "He smote the rock of the national 



1794] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 235 

resources, and abundant streams of revenue burst 
forth. He touched the dead corpse of public credit, 
and it sprung upon its feet." 

466. The Whiskey Rebellion. — The onl}^ direct tax 
laid b}^ Hamilton was on whiskey, one of the few prod- 
ucts which now pay such a tax. Objection was raised 
to this tax by the makers of whiskey, and in western 
Pennsylvania, where it was produced in large quanti- 
ties, the distillers rebelled. In 1794 they broke into 
open insurrection, and gathered such a party of sup- 
porters that it was necessary to send an army of fifteen 
thousand troops to restore order. When the soldiers 
appeared, the outbreak subsided, and the resistance 
to paying the tax disappeared. 

467. War with the Indians. — At the time of the out- 
break of the distillers real war was going on in the 
west, where the Indians had become hostile to the 
settlers, partly, as was thought, through the agency of 
traders and agents from the military posts still held 
by the British in the lake region. The war with the 
savages was badly managed and serious disasters fol- 
lowed. General Harmar was defeated by them in two 
battles in 1790, and General St. Clair was ambushed 
and severely beaten in the following year. Their 
success so emboldened the natives that decisive 
measures became necessary if the western country 
was to be held. General Anthony Wayne, the hero of 
Stony Point, was sent against them with a powerful 
army. Warned by the errors of his predecessors, he 
took every precaution, and, in a desperate battle 
fought on the Maumee in 1794, he utterly routed the 
savage hosts. He then laid waste their country for 



236 



THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 



[1792 



fifty miles around and forced them to conclude a 
treaty, in which they gave up a large tract of land. 

468. Washington Re=elected. — By 1792, when the time 
for a second Presidential election came, there were two 
well-defined parties in the country, the Federal, headed 
by Hamilton, and the Republican, which succeeded 




Indian Warfare on the Fkhntier. 

the Anti-Federalist, and was headed by Jefferson. 
This was later known as the Democratic-Republican, 
and finally as the Democratic party. As such it still 
e?dsts. Its members opposed the policy of the adminis- 
tration, but Washington and Adams were re-elected 
by large majorities. 

469. Troubles with England. — Since the treaty of 1783 
the difficulty with England about the Tories had 



1795] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 237 

continued. The government had agreed to recommend 
the States to pay for the confiscated property of these 
refugees and also to pay the old debts due British 
merchants. No payments were made, however, and 
harsh treatment forced thousands of Tories to leave 
the countr3^ In return for this failure to keep the 
terms of the treaty Great Britain held on to Detroit 
and other ports on the lakes. There were other 
troubles. War then existed between England and 
France, and the British war-vessels began to seize 
American ships dealing with French ports, holding that 
their cargoes were contraband of war, and also to carry 
off sailors from American vessels, claiming that these 
were British subjects. 

470. John Jay's Treaty. — These sources of dispute led 
to a treaty in 1795, in which John Jay, late Chief 
Justice of the Supreme Court, and a man of distin- 
guished ability, acted for the United States. All the 
subjects of dispute were settled except that of the 
impressment of American sailors. But this had raised 
such bitter feeling that great excitement arose when 
the terms of the treaty were made known. Jay was 
burned in effigy, the British minister was insulted, 
and Hamilton, who favored the treaty, was stoned at 
a public meeting. Yet Washington, feeling that the 
treaty was the best that could then be had, spoke in its 
favor, and it was concurred in by the Senate in spite 
of bitter opposition in that body. 

471. A Treaty with Spain. — A treaty was also made 
with Spain, which secured to Americans the free naviga- 
tion of the Mississippi River, New Orleans being made 
a port of deposit for the western States. 



238 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1797 

472. Washington Retires from Office.— As the end of 

Washington's term approached he was strongly solicited 
to become a candidate for a third term. On his refusal, 
John Adams was elected President, with' Thomas 
Jefferson for Vice President, and Washington retired 
from public life on March 4, 1797. During his admin- 
istration the United States had overcome its financial 
difficulties, grown prosperous industrially, and won the 
respect of foreign nations. 

He took leave of the people in a farewell address 
filled with patriotic and statesmanlike sentiments, and 
which has become one of the famous State papers of 
the nation. Less than three years later this noble 
patriot, the "Father of his Country," passed away 
from the scene of his long labors. 

4. JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION » 

From 1797 to 1801 

473. Favorable Conditions. — When the new President 
took office, on March 4, 1797, all looked bright and 
promising. The national debt had been funded and 
much of it paid, the revenue was abundant for the 
needs of the government, the Indians were quiet, the 
relations with England were no longer hostile, and the 

1 John Adams was born in Massachusetts in 1735. An ardent 
patriot, he served in both Continental Congresses and was on the 
Committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence. He long 
served the country abroad, aided in making the treaty of peace of 
1783, and was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787. 
After serving as Vice President and President, he died on the fiftieth 
anniversary of American indejjcndence, July 4, 1826. His last 
words were "Thomas Jefferson still survives." By a remarkable 
coincidence Jefferson died on the same day. 



1798] 



JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 



239 



commercial and agricultural interests of the country 
were rapidly developing. Manufacture also was mak- 
ing some progress. 

474. Hostile Relations with France. — The first indica- 
tion of trouble arose with France, which country had 
just passed through a terrible revolution, and was 
bitterly hostile to Great Britain. The treaty with the 
latter country greatly displeased the French govern- 
ment, which held that the United States was under 
obligations to France and should 
not have made terms of peace with 
its opponent without consulting it. 
When Adams was elected President, 
instead of JefTei'son, who was friendly 
to France, the revolutionary leaders 
of that country grew so incensed 
that they ordered the American 
minister to leave the country. This 
was almost equivalent to a declara- 
tion of war, and in fact the French 

cruisers had already begun war on American commerce, 
a large number of merchant vessels having been seized. 

475. Efforts to Avert War. — President Adams, feeling 
that the country was in no condition for war, sought 
to avert hostihties by sending envoys to France, who 
were instructed to negotiate a treaty, if possible. 
But they were treated with indignity, while private 
suggestions were made that it would be wise for them 
to conciliate the French government by a present of 
a quarter million of dollars. Charles Pinckney, one of 
the envoys, indignantly replied, "Millions for defence; 
not one cent for tribute," and the negotiations ended. 




John Adams. 



240 



THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 



[1799 



476. Preparations for War. — When the correspondence 
with Prince Talleyrand, the French minister, was 
made public, the indignation in the United States was 
extreme. Pinckney's saying, "Millions for defence; not 
one cent for tribute, " became the war-cry of the people. 
Congress took steps to increase the army and navy, 
and Washington reluctantly consented to accept the 

command of the army 
in case of necessity. 
War seemed at hand. 
477. Naval Warfare. 
— As the French raids 
upon American ships 
continued, orders 
were given the navy 
to retaliate by attack- 
B n '^^^^■^fc;:=;^k.;iS5i^_:_^ jj^g i\^q armed ships of 

France. As a result 
several naval battles 
took place. In Febru- 
ary, 1799, the frigate 
Constellation attacked 
and captured the 
French frigate L'Insurgente, and somewhat later the 
same vessel captured the La Vengeance, a war-ship of 
heavier armament. The French authorities, astonished 
and dismayed by these unlooked-for disasters, quickly 
changed their attitude. Napoleon Bonaparte, who had 
now come into power in France, was in favor of peace, 
and a satisfactory treaty put an end to the trouble. 

478. The Alien and Sedition Laws. — In 179S Congress 
passed two laws which gave rise to much adverse feel- 




FlGHTING THE FUENrn. 



1799] JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 241 

ing. One of these, the Aheii Law, gave the President 
power to banish from the country any foreigner whom 
he considered dangerous, and to imprison him if he 
should return. The other, the Sedition Law, gave the 
government the right to punish by fine and imprison- 
ment any one who should publish anything false or 
malicious against Congress or the President. This was 
aimed at the newspapers hostile to the administration, 
which had violently abused President Adams, and 
even "Washington before him. 

479. Popular Opposition, — These laws aroused bitter 
opposition, and were widely denounced as unconstitu- 
tional, since they interfered with personal liberty and 
freedom of speech. The Sedition Law was enforced 
on several occasions and did great injury to the Federal 
party, then in power. 

480. Death of Washington. — In December, 1799, while 
attending to some duties on his estate, Washington 
became wet in a storm, a severe cold resulting. Fever 
followed, and on the night of December 14 he died. 
Thus passed away in his sixty-eighth year the noblest 
man of his country, the one justly eulogized as "first 
in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his 
countrymen." The whole country united in paying 
honor to his memory, and his tomb at Mt. Vernon has 
become a hallowed shrine to patriotic Americans. 

481. The 1800 Election. — Party feehng ran high 
throughout the Adams administration, the opposition 
party growing in strength and the Federal party losing 
many of its adherents. The unpopular Alien and 
Sedition Laws injured it greatly, and by the time of 
the Presidential election of November, 1800, its strength 

16 



242 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1800 

had so decreased that Adams was defeated for a second 
term, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, candidates 
of the Democratic-RepiibHcan party, being successful. 

482. A Defect in the Constitution. — When the elec- 
toral vote was counted it appeared that Jefferson and 
Burr had each received seventy-three votes and Adams 
sixty-five. This revealed a defect in the Constitution, 
since Jefferson and Burr had an equal claim on the 
Presidency, and it became necessary for the House of 
Representatives to decide between the two candidates. 
Though Jefferson was the stronger in the House, there 
were Federalist intrigues against him, with the result 
that his election was confirmed only a fortnight before 
the end of Adams's term. 

483. The Twelfth Amendment. — It might easily have 
happened that the country would have been left for 
a time without a President. Here was a danger that 
needed to be averted and this could be done only by 
an amendment to the Constitution. Such an amend- 
ment was prepared and finally passed in 1804. Under 
it the decision as to who should be President and who 
Vice President was taken from the Board of Electors, 
and provision was made that candidates should be 
nominated expressly for President and Vice President. 
This did away with all danger of any similar complica- 
tion in later elections. 

5. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 
From 1801 to 1809 

484. The New Capital.— In 1800, the year of Jefferson's 
election, the cai)ital of the United States was removed 
from Philadelphia to Washington, the new capital 



1801] JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 243 

city on the Potomac , John Adams removing thither 
during the last year of his term of office. This city 
had been laid out on a magnificent scale, but as yet 
had only a few hundred inhabitants. The capitol 
building was erected on an elevated place in the 
centre of the new city. 

485. Inauguration of Jefferson. — Thomas Jefferson ^ 
was a "man of the people," one in full sympathy with 
the "republican simplicity" he had observed in revolu- 
tionar}' France. His inauguration 
took place in the new capitol and 
was conducted without any cere- 
monious display, while he was 
alwaA's read}^ to meet any citizen 
on the standard of perfect equality. 
In this he differed from Washing- 
ton and Adams, who had felt it 
due to their position to keep up 
some degree of pomp and ceremony. 

486. The Message to Congress. — It 

had been the custom of Washington and Adams, when 
they wished to communicate with Congress, to do so 
in person, addressing the Houses from the floor. Jef- 
ferson introduced the practice of writing his messages 

' Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia April 2, 174.3. He 
studied law, became a member of the House of Burgesses of Vir- 
ginia and of the Continental Congress, and was the author of the 
Declaration of Independence, America's most famous State paper. 
He was governor of Virginia during the Revolution, Minister to 
France in 1785, Secretary of State under Washington, Vice Presi- 
dent under Adams, and President for two terms. He died on the 
same day with Adams, July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the 
signing of the Declaration he had written. 




244 



THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 



[1801 



and sending them in to be read, and this methotl has 
been foHowed by all later Presidents. 

487. The Barbary Pirates. — One of the earliest events 
of the new administration was a war with Tripoh, one 
of the piratical Barbary States of Northern Africa. 
These lawless nations had long been in the habit of 
preying upon the commerce of other countries in the 
Mediterranean, and the maritime nations of Europe 
had escaped their depredations by paying annual trib- 
ute to their rulers. The T"^nited States had consented 
to do the same in 1795, after its commerce had suffered 
much from the raids of the Moorish pirates. In 1801 the 
Bashaw, or ruler, of Tripoli demanded a larger tribute 
from this country, threatening war if it was not paid. 

488. War with Tripoli. — This demand was more than 
President Jefferson was prepared to submit to. Instead 
of sending tribute, he sent a fleet of war-vessels to the 

--— Mediterranean and bombarded the 

city of Tripoli. The war continued 
until 1805, by which time the Ba- 
shaw was glad to make peace and 
remit the tribute. The other Bar- 
bary states soon followed his ex- 
f^''^01^^^K ample and the United States ceased 
^JJ^^F to be troubled by them. During 
"^ the war the frigate Philadelphia 

ran aground in the harbor and was 
seized b}' the Tripolitans. It was 
subsequently destroyed by Lieutenant Stei)hen Deca- 
tur, who made a night expedition into the harbor, 
drove the Tripolitans overboard, and set the ship on 
fire, escaping without the loss of a man. 




Stephen Decatur. 



1802] JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 245 

489. Louisiana. — The most important event of Jef- 
ferson's first term was the purchase of the great terri- 
tory of Louisiana, embracing the vast tract between 
the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. This 
region, early claimed and partly occupied by France, 
had been transferred to Spain at the close of the French 
and Indian War. Its eastern section was of much 
importance to the United States, since those who held 
it controlled the navigation of the Mississippi River 
and could cut off access to the Gulf of Mexico. The 
rapidly increasing settlers in the west were already 
protesting against the obstructions made by Spain to 
their river commerce and it was probable that in time 
they would go beyond protest. 

490. Negotiations with France. — In 1801, by a secret 
treaty, Spain returned the Louisiana territory to 
France. Jefferson learned of this in 1802, and in the 
following year sent James Monroe to France as a 
special envoy to negotiate with that country for the 
purchase of the island of New Orleans, the site of a 
city which commanded the navigation of two branches 
of the Mississippi. This was rendered necessary by the 
action of the Spanish commandant, who still held New 
Orleans in 1802 and had issued an order closing that 
port against American vessels. 

491. The Louisiana Purchase. — Fortunately, Napoleon 
Bonaparte, then in control of French affairs, was 
badly in need of money, and, though at peace with 
England, was in imminent danger of war with that 
country. In such a case, the powerful British fleet 
was very likely to rob him of this distant province. 
Therefore, when Monroe made an offer of two and a 



246 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1.S03 

half millions of dollars for the island of New Orleans, 
he was surprised by a proposal from the French minis- 
ter to sell to this country the whole region of Louisiana. 
This was far beyond what Jefferson had contem- 
plated. When he heard from his commissioner that the 
offer had been accepted, subject to his concurrence, 
on the terms of fifteen million dollars for the entire 
tract, he did not hesitate to close the bargain. He 
recognized the immense advantage such an acquisition 

must prove to this country, 
the area of which would be 
more than doubled by sign- 
ing the agreement. This he 
did without loss of time, 
Congress sanctioned the 
appropriation necessary, 
and the great purchase 
was made. 
492. An Unknown Country. 

Signing THE Contract FOR THE Pur- Little WaS knOWIl 01 the 

CHA.K OK LOUISIANA. couHtry thus secured. It 

was still mainly occupied by Indian tribes, in full pos- 
session of the land. Beyond the Rocky Mountains lay 
another great country of which almost nothing was 
known. Only its coast had been visited, except that in 
1792 Captain Gray, of Boston, had discovered and sailed 
up a great river in that region, which he nametl the 
Columbia from the name of his ship. But no nation 
took the trouble to lay claim to that far-off wilder- 
ness, and its native inhabitants remained undisturbed. 
493. The Lewis and Clark Expedition. — With a natural 
desire to learn something about the great region he had 




1804] 



JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 



247 



purchased, President Jefferson in 1804 sent out an 
expedition under Captains Meriwether Lewis and Wil- 
ham Clark to explore it, not only to the Rockj^ Moun- 
tains but to the distant Pacific. Starting from St. 
Louis, then a small village, they made their way in 
boats up the Missouri to its head-waters. Crossing the 
mountains with difficulty, they found on the opposite 
side the waters of another stream, down which they 
made their way to the Pacific Ocean. It proved to be 
the Columbia River, which Captain Gray had dis- 




Fnmi llo-iiit-r- Hi-tui_\ of Miw^-ipin \ ill \ (II ii_lt i \ MitlhnCo.) 
Ax Ohio Flat-13oat. 



covered and named. The explorers returned in 1806 
and published a highly interesting account of their 
journey, and of the people, wealth and wonders of the 
country traversed. Their report put an end to all 
doubt of the value of President Jefferson's purchase. 
494. Ohio Admitted to the Union. — In addition to the 
vast acquisition of territory described, a new State 
was added to the Union during Jefferson's first term. 
This was Ohio; the first State formed out of the 
Northwestern Territory. First settled at Marietta in 
1788, Ohio had a population of nearly fifty thousand 
in 1800, and was admitted to the Union in 1803. 



248 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1804 

495. The Election of 1804.— At the end of his first 
term President Jefferson had become so popular that 
he was again nominated and received nearly the whole 
electoral vote. This was partly due to the great pros- 
perity of the country under his administration and the 
vast addition he had made to the area of the United 
States. George Clinton was elected Vice President. 
Aaron Burr, the former Vice President, had ruined 
his reputation by disgraceful political intrigues, and 
had killed the famous statesman, Alexander Hamilton, 
his political opponent, in a duel, an act which aroused 
against him the deepest indignation. 

496. Burr's Later Career. — His political career at an 
end, Aaron Burr indulged in questionable schemes, 
forming a plot to seize Texas, then part of Mexico, 
and found an independent nation in the southwest, 
with New Orleans for its capital. His design lieing 
suspected, his expedition was broken up and he was 
arrested on a charge of treason. He was tried in 1807 
and was acquitted, as there was no legal evidence of 
his guilt. But few believed in his innocence, his 
influence was at an end, and he sank into poverty and 
obscurity. 

497. Public Improvements. — Among the important 
events of Jefferson's second term was the voting of 
monej'' by Congress in 1800 for a national road to the 
west, starting from Cumberland, Maryland, and the 
passage of a bill for the abolition of the slave trade on 
January 1, 1808. This was in accordance with a 
provision in the Constitution (Art. I., Sec. d). A 
highly important inv^ention was also made, that of the 
steamboat, by Robert Fulton, whose first boat, the 



1807] 



JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 



249 



Clermont, was launched on the Hudson in 1807. It 
was a rude and clumsy affair, but it made its wa}^ from 
New York to All:)any against wind and stream in thirty- 
two hours, and before many years the steamboat was 
in use on many of our rivers/ 

498. Interference with American Commerce. — During 
Jefferson's second term war raged violently between 
France and England and the commerce of America 
was much interfered with. England seized vessels 
trading to ports under French influence, and France 
did the same with those sailing to British ports, so 
that all commerce with Europe was unsafe. And an 
offense that roused still more indignation in this 
country was the stoppage of American vessels on 
the high seas and the 

impressment of sea- -^ < > < WW W 

men from them on 
the charge, often a 
false one, that fhey 
were British subjects. 

499. The Chesapeake Affair. — So insolent did some of 
the British captains become in these acts of outrage that 
in 1807 the British frigate Leopard had the assurance 
to hail the American frigate Chesapeake and demand 
permission to search her crew. When this was refused, 
the Leopard fired several broadsides into the Chesa- 
peake, killing and wounding more than twent}" of her 
men. The captain of the Chesapeake, who w^as taken 

' A steamboat had been placed on the Delaware by John Fitt-h 
in 1790 and ran for some time, but failed to attract attention. 
Fulton's success lay in the use of side paddle-wheels. The screw- 
propeller, now so widely used, was of much later invention. 




John Fitch's Steamboat. 



250 



THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 



[1807 



utterly by surprise, and had not a gun in readiness to 
]-eturn the fire of the Leopard, was obhged to haul down 
his flag to save his ship from being sunk. Officers from 
the Leopard carried off four of his men, claiming that 
they were deserters from the British navy. This act 
would probably have led to war if England had not 
been prompt to disavow it. 

500. The Embargo Act. — There might have been war 
in any case had this country been in condition for 




Robert Fulton's Steamboat, Clermont, ISO,. 

hostilities. In retaliation for the insult to the American 
flag the President issued a proclamation prohibiting 
British cruisers from entering American ports, while 
Congress passed an Embargo Act, which forbade any 
commerce with foreign nations, only the coasting trade 
being permitted. It was believed that this would 
seriously injui-e England and France, but it did still 
more injury to this country, since it put an end to 
American foreign trade. 

501. The Non=Intercourse Act. — The Eud^argo Act 
continued in effect for two years, 1807-1800. It had 
only one beneficial effect, that of a rapid development 



1809] MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 251 

of American manufactures. The injury caused by it 
in New England was so serious that it appeared as if 
that section might secede from the Union. It was 
therefore repealed and a Non-Intercourse Act passed 
in its place. This cut off all commerce with England 
and France, but permitted American ships to trade 
with all other countries. 

502. The Election of 1809.— The passage of the Non- 
Intercourse Act took place early in 1809, just before 
the close of Jefferson's second term. ?Ie was still 
popular, and there was a wide demand that he should 
become a candidate for a third term, but he followed 
Washington's example in refusing, and James Madison 
became the candidate of his party, George Clinton 
being renominated for Vice President. Charles C. 
Pinckney was the candidate of the Federal party. 
Madison was elected by one hundred and twenty-nine 
electoral votes against forty-seven for his opponent. 

6. MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 
From 1809 to 1817 

503. A Protective Policy. — President Madison ^ was 
strongly in favor of protecting American industries 
by a tariff against foreign competition, and on his 
inauguration on March 4, 1809, he wore, as an example 
of the products of his country, a suit of cloth made in 

^ James Madison was born in Virginia in 1751, and was a promi- 
nent member of the Constitutional Convention of 17S7, where he 
did such excellent work that he was called the "Father of the 
Constitution. " His notes on the convention give us our chief 
information of what took place in that body, and he was very active 
in having the Constitution ratified by Virginia. He served as 
Secretary of State under Jefferson. 



252 



THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 



[1810 



American factories from the wool of American sheep. 
Events, however, prevented him from carrying out 
the policy he thus advocated. The country was 
rapidly drifting towards war, and though Madison was 
the reverse of warlike in disposition, circumstances 
proved too strong for his inclination. 

504. Napoleon's Duplicity. — In 1810 an effort was made 
by Congress to induce England and France to repeal 
their decrees against commerce so far as they affected 

American trade, offering, if this were 
done, to repeal the Non-Intercourse 
Act. Napoleon took a crafty advan- 
tage of this, falsely informing the 
United States that he had revoked 
his decrees. Congress at once 
repealed the Act so far as France 
was concerned and many American 
merchant ships sought French ports. 
The first that came were well treated 
and a large number of others fol- 
lowed. But Napoleon had secretly advised his admi- 
ralty officials to pay no heed to his public announce- 
ment, and suddenly all the American vessels in his 
ports were seized and their contents confiscated. Thus 
by an act worthy of a brigand the autocrat of France 
robbed peaceful American citizens of property worth 
millions of dollars. 

505. Hostile Relations. — Napoleon's act of piracy was 
sufficient justification for the United States to pro- 
claim war against France, but England had given 
still deeper provocation by its continued seizure of 
seamen from American ships, and public opinion was 




James Madison. 



1811] MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 253 

divided between the weight of these double injuries. 
Between 1803 and 1812 more than nine hundred 
American vessels were seized by British cruisers on 
various pretexts, and in all more than six thousand 
seamen were impressed to serve in the British nav}^ 
On every side arose the war-cry of "Free-trade and 
sailors' rights." 

506. The Chesapeake Avenged. — In 1811 occurred an 
event that gave great satisfaction to the war-party. 
British war-vessels were cruising in our waters to 
seize merchant ships on the pretext of their carrying 
goods that were contraband of war. One of these, the 
sloop-of-war Little Belt, was hailed by the American 
frigate President and insolently replied to the hail 
with a cannon shot. The reply of the President was 
a broadside. After the Little Belt had thirty-two men 
killed and wounded its captain thought it wise to return 
a civil answer to the hail. This was looked upon as a 
fitting retaliation for the attack on the Chesapeake. 

507. Indian Hostilities. — There was trouble on land as 
well as on water. The Indians had become hostile, 
incited, as was believed, by British officials in Canada, 
who were also accused of furnishing them with arms. 
In 1811 Tecumseh, a leading chief of the Shawanese 
tribe, combined a number of tribes against the whites. 
General William Henry Harrison, governor of Indiana 
Territory, led a force against them, which was treach- 
erously attacked at night when in camp near the 
Tippecanoe River. The soldiers defended themselves 
bravely, and at daybreak completely routed the 
savages by a bayonet charge. Tecumseh was at this 
time in the South, engaged in inciting to hostilities the 



254 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1812 

tribes in that section. Before his return war had begun 
and he and his followers openly joined the British. 

508. A Declaration of War. — During these events the 
feeling of provocation against Great Britain steadily 
grew. That country was looked upon as the ancient 
enemy and France as the ancient friend of the United 
States, and the British seizure of seamen from our ships 
was more galling to American pride than Napoleon's 
piratical policy. The Federalist party was opposed to 




Battle of Tippecanoe. 

war, as were also the merchants and fishers of New Eng- 
land, who feared serious damage to business. But as a 
rule the war-spirit ran high, and Henry Clay, John C. 
Calhoun, and other ardent and able young orators 
warmly advocated it in Congress. President Madison 
hesitated, but he was brought over to their views, and 
on June 18, 1812, Congress declared war against Great 
Britain. 

509. The State of the Country. — The country was poorly 
prepared for such a step. Its army was small and undis- 



1812] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 255 



ciplined, its generals lacked experience and ability, its 
navy comprised only twelve vessels of any strength, 
against which its opponent could send a thousand, 
many of them heavily armed ships of war. Yet the 
provocation to hostilities had been great, and people 
seldom weigh consequences when stirred to indignation. 

7. THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 
510. The Seat of War. — Canada was the outpost of 
Great Britain in America and upon its borders a great 
part of the land war took place. A second field was 

the ocean, and while the 
Americans fared poorly 
upon the land, they were 
remarkably successful 
upon the watery realm. 

511. A Disgraceful Sur= 
render. — The war opened 
with a disgraceful event. 
General William Hull, an 
officer who had served gal- 
lantly in the Revolution, led a 
force of militia to Detroit, mak- 
ing a road two hundred miles 
through forests and swamps as 
he advanced. At Detroit he 
was besieged by a strong force 
of British and Indians under General Brock. Without 
waiting for a gun to be fired by the enemy Hull hoisted 
the white flag of surrender and gave up the fortress and 
town to the foe, and with it control of the Territory 
of Michigan. 




Battle-Fields on the Niagara. 



256 



THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 



[1812 



512. Hull's Sentence. — Bitter indignation followed this 
act, Hull being stigmatized as a second Benedict 
Arnold. He was tried by court-martial, found guilty 
of cowardice, and sentenced to be shot, but the Presi- 
dent pardoned him on account of his services in the 
Revolution. Hull had reached Detroit before he knew 
of the declaration of war, was short of provisions and 
powder, and was to a large extent a victim of the faults 
of others. Such is the opinion of recent historians. He 
claimed that he surrendered to save the women and 
children of Detroit from the horrors of Indian massacre. 




\\ II.OERNF.SS. 



513. Queenstown and Toronto. — Other attempts on 
Canada were equally unsuccessful. General Van 
Rensselaer attacked Queenstown with a small force of 
militia and was easily repulsed, and General Dearborn 
marched upon York (now Toronto), which was taken by 
General Pike and its Parliament House burned. Pike 
was killed by an explosion of the magazine. 



1812] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 257 

514. Harrison's Campaign. — The capture of Detroit 
opened the Northwest to British invasion, and attacks 
were made on frontier forts in Ohio and Indiana. 
General Harrison marched to the recovery of Detroit, 
but his advance-guard was defeated in January, 1813, 
by a force of British and Indians on Raisin River, the 
wounded being massacred by the savages. Harrison 
was obHged to return for fresh troops. 

515. Causes of Failure. — With the exception of the 
unprofitable capture of York, the land campaigns of 
the first period of the war had proved complete failures. 
This was largely due to haste and lack of adequate 
preparation. The regular army was small and the 
militia were poorly equipped, lacking in supplies, and 
devoid of discipline. The invasion of Canada, which 
had been attempted from several quarters, had failed, 
the Territory of Michigan was lost, and Ohio was in 
danger of invasion. Such was the state of afTairs on 
land more than a year after the declaration of war. 

5.16. The War on the Ocean. — Yet the war-party in 
America was not discouraged, their losses on land being 
counterbalanced by splendid and unlooked-for suc- 
cesses on the ocean. England had long claimed the 
proud title of ''Mistress of the sea," but this honor was 
quick!}' taken from her by American sailors in a series 
of brilliant victories, beginning on August 13, 1812, 
when the frigate Essex captured the sloop-of-war Alert 
in an eight minutes' fight and without the loss of a man. 

517. The Constitution and Querriere. — Six days later a 
fight on mor(! equal terms took place in the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence between the frigate Constitution, under 
Captain Isaac Hull, and the British frigate Guerriere. 

17 



258 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1812 

The two ships were equally matched, yet in half an 
hour the Guerriere had lost a hundred men and was 
a mastless wreck, while the Constitution had lost but 
fourteen men and was still in good fighting trim. 
The prize w^as sinking, and hardly had her crew been 
taken off when she plunged beneath the water. 




Tub; Constitution anh <lri kkii;rf.. 

518. Other Victories at Sea. — Ocean victories follow^ed 
in rapid succession. On October 13 the American 
sloop Wasp captured the British sloop Frolic. On the 
25th the frigate United States captured the frigate 
Macedonian. On December 29 the Constitution, now^ 
under Captain Bainbridge, won another notable vic- 
tor}^, reducing the British frigate JaA'a to a total wreck 
with a loss of two hundred and thirt}^ men. In Feb- 
ruarj^, 1813, the sloop Hornet met the ship Peacock, 
and punished her so severel)^ that she sank before her 
crew could be taken off. 



1813] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 259 

519. The Cause of American Victory. — In six months 
the Americans had taken more British ships than the 
French had done in twenty years and the naval author- 
ities of Europe stood astounded. The fighters, however, 
well knew the caust:- of their success. Their ships were 
better built, their men better trained, their guns heav- 
ier, their gunners better marksmen. Every shot told. 
There was no firing at random, as in the British ships. 
Their crews were larger also, and these mainly the 
hardy fishermen of New England, who had made the 
sea their liomc. 

520. "Don't Give Up the Ship."— The British won 
their first success on June 1, 1813. Captain Lawrence, 
of the frigate Chesapeake, had been challenged by the 
Shannon, a well-appointed British frigate. The brave 
but indiscreet Lawrence sailed from Boston harbor 
with a hastily gathered crew and a ship in no proper 
condition for fighting and met in the Shannon one of 
the best manned and commanded of the British 
ships. As a result the Chesapeake was quickly cap- 
tured, Lawrence being mortally wounded. As they 
carried him below he cried', "Don't give up the 
ship!" This dying appeal became the motto of the 
American navy. 

521. The Essex Captured. — There was only one other 
American war vessel captured during the whole war. 
This was the Essex, under Captain Porter. After a 
year's cruise in the Pacific, in which he took many 
prizes. Porter was attacked in March, 1814, under 
very unfavorable conditions, by two British frigates 
in the harbor of Valparaiso. After a long and des- 
perate resistance he was obliged to surrender. 



260 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1813 

522. The Constitution's Last Victory. — In Fchruar3^ 
1815, the old Constitution, which already had won 
such fame, was attacked by the British frigate Cyane 
and the sloop Levant, off the coast of Madeira. After 
a forty minutes' battle she captured them bo-th. Not 
until harbor was reached did they learn that the war 
had ended before their fight took place. 

523. The Privateers. — More victories were prevented 
by the great size of the British navy, which enabled it 
in the latter part of the war to blockade many of the 
American fighting ships in port. But numbers of 
privateers made their way out and during the war 
captuvred more than a thousand prizes. On the other 
hand, man}^ American merchant ships were taken, 
but in this field of warfare the British were largely the 
losers, they having many more merchantmen afloat. 

524. Perry on Lake Erie. — While the American navy 
was thus winning laurels on the ocean, victory came to 
it also on the inland lakes. In the summer of 1813 the 
British controlled Lake Erie with a fleet of six well- 
armed vessels. Captain Oliver Perry was sent to build 
a fleet to meet them. This he did with remarkable 
rapidity, cutting down forest trees which in a few 
weeks were converted into ships. Some other vessels 
were obtained, cannon were brought from Pittsburg, 
and soon he set sail in search of the British ships with 
nine vessels, armed with fifty-four guns. The flag 
which flew at the head of his flag ship, the Lawrence^ 
bore Captain Lawrence's words, "Don't give up the 
ship. " 

525. The Battle of Lake Erie. — The two scjuadrons met 
on September 10, and a fierce battle took place, in which 



1813] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 261 



the Lawrence was reduced to a wreck and nearly all 
her crew were killed or wounded. Perry, with the flag 
bearing Lawrence's words, daringly crossed on a boat 
under a hot fire to the Niagara, and in this fresh ship 
he made a splendid charge through the enemy's line, 
firing right and left into their shattered vessels. In 
fifteen minutes more the victory was won. His famous 




Perry on Lake Erie. 

despatch, "We have met the enemy and they are 
ours," roused the country like an electric shock. It 
lifted the young commander from obscurity to fame. 
526. Battle of the Thames. — General Harrison had 
by this time returned with a fresh army and was 
facing General Proctor and his Indian ally Tecumseh 
at the western end of Lake Erie. On receiving the news 
of Perry's victory he at once crossed into Canada and 
followed the enemy, who had hastily retreated. He 
came up with them on the river Thames. Proctor 



262 



THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 



11814 



fled; his men surrendered; Tecumseh was killed; the 
field was won in that section. Detroit was soon after 
recovered and the war ended in the West. 

527. The Niagara Campaign. — In 1814 Canada was 
again attacked on the line of the Niagara River, this 




time with a well-trained 
army under Generals 
Brown, Ripley, and 
Scott. Scott won a bril- 
liant victory at Chij)- 
pewa on July o and 
another was won at 
Lundy's Lane, opposite 

Niagara Falls, on the 25th. These victories, how- 
ever, yielded no useful results other than to restore 
American confidence. 



Northern Battle-Fields of the War of 
1812-15. 



1814] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 263 

528. The Lake Champlain Victory. — In September, 
1814, the British made a vigorous attempt to invade 
New York, by way of the often-tried line of Lake 
Champlain. The war with Napoleon had ended, and 
thousands of the best troops of Great Britain were 
sent to Canada, and put under General Prevost, who 
marched to the head of the lake, where a large squad- 
ron of armed vessels had been collected. Commodore 
McDonough meanwhile had collected a squadron of 
fourteen vessels, and with these he fought the British 
at great odds and won a splendid victory. The British 
fleet was so badly beaten as to be nearly destroyed. 
Prevost with his veterans saw the fight from the shore 
and at its end retreated in such haste as to leave their 
sick and most of their stores behind. 

529. Washington Captured. — The British plan had 
been to invade the country at once on the north, the 
east, and the south. The invasion from the north, as 
we have seen, had signally failed. It was little more 
successful elsewhere. Troops were landed on the New 
England coast and a number of towns taken and 
plundered. In July, 1814, a strong fleet entered Chesa- 
peake Bay and landed an army, which marched upon 
Washington. The militia force gathered to meet the 
invaders was put to flight, and the national capital 
was entered on August 24. The President and his 
family had fled. 

530. Public Buildings Burned. The captors did shame- 
ful work, from which the British nation gained neither 
profit nor renown. They burned the Capitol, the 
President's house, and most of the public buildings, 
the records of the government being destroyed. This 



264 



THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 



[1814 



act of vandalism had been ordered by the British 
government on the sorry plea that the Parliament 
House at York, Canada, had been burned. But this 
was the act of a general heated in fight, not the 
calm decision of a government. From Washington the 
fleet proceeded to Baltimore and attacked Fort Mc- 
Henry, but Baltimore was prepared and the foe was 
driven off. During the 
assault Francis S. Key 
wrote the stirring song 
of the " Star-spangled 
Banner," since then the 
national anthem of the 
United States. 

531. Jackson and 
Creek Indians. — The 
final event of the 
war was an attack 
upon New Orleans. 
It was assailed by 
General Paken- 
ham, an able ofii- 




New Orleans and the Creek War. 



cer, with an army 

of twelve thousand veterans, and was defended by 
General Jackson with about half as many men. Jack- 
son had just been victorious in a war against the Creek 
Indians, who, instigated by Tecumseh, had taken Fort 
Mimms and murdered the garrison and all the women 
and children in the fort. After a long contest, in 
which many battles were fought, Jackson decisively 
defeated them in a severe engagement at Tohopeka 
and forced them to beg for peace. 



1815] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 265 

532. Strange Intrenchments. — On reaching New Orleans 
Jackson hastily threw up intrenchments, in which 
cotton bales were used to some extent. The British 
used sugar hogsheads for the same purpose. Fortifica- 
tions of this kind were more curious than useful. The 
cotton was soon set on fire, and was quickly replaced 
with a bank of earth. The sugar hogsheads proved no 
better suited for defence. 




Battle of New Orleaxs, 

533. The British Assault. — After some preliminary 
fighting, Pakenham made an assault in force on. 
January 8, 1815. But his men had the sharp-shooters 
of the west to face and fell in multitudes, while the 
Americans were almost untouched. Pakenham was 
killed and twenty-six hundred of his men fell dead or 
wounded, while the American loss was only eight 
killed and thirteen wounded. 

534. A Treaty of Peace. — This sanguinary battle, as 
the event proved, was wholly unnecessary, as a treaty 



266 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1815 

of peace had been signed at Ghent, Belgium, two weeks 
before. But in those days news travelled slowly and 
the war went on for several weeks after peace had been 
declared. Sailing vessels were the only means by which 
news could be sent across the ocean at that time. The 
treaty left affairs much as they were before. The 
British did not give up the right of impressment, but 
there was no fear that they would again venture to 
seize American sailors. 

535. War with Algiers. — During the war with England 
the Dey of Algiers had taken the opportunity to seize 
some American vessels and enslave their crews. In 
1815 Commodore Decatur was sent with a fleet to 
punish him. He captured two of the Algerine ships, 
sailed into the harbor of Algiers, and forced the Dey 
to sign a treaty giving up all American captives and 
agreeing to cease all attacks on American commerce. 
Tunis and Tripoli did the same, and since then there 
has been no trouble with the Barbary States. 

536. The Second National Bank. — After the war, 
business was depressed and the government was seri- 
ously in debt. The old National Bank had been closed 
in 1811, Ijut a new one seemed needed, and one was 
chartered in 1816, to run for twenty years. It did 
good service in helping to restore prosperity to the 
country. 

537. New States. — Two new States were added during 
the Madison administration, Louisiana in 1812 and 
Indiana in 1810, making the nundjer nineteen in all. 

538. Monroe Elected President. — Madison had been 
re-elected President in 1812, with Elbridge Gerry for 
Vice Presiden''-. In 1810 James Monroe and Daniel D. 



1816] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 267 

Tompkins were nominated by the Democratic-Repub- 
lican party, and Rufus King by the Federal party, 
which made no nomination for Vice Pregident. Monroe 
received an overwhehiiing majority. The Federal 
party had grown very weak, and nothing was heard 
of it after this election. 

SUMMARY OF EVENTS. 

1783-1787. Boundaries and progress of the nation. Condition 
and enterprise of the people. Industrial and social life. Military 
and popular discontent. Weakness of Congress and financial 
difficulties. Congress is granted the Northwest Territory. The 
Constitutional Convention is called, and the Constitution ratified. 
The main features of the Constitution. 

1789-1797. Washington is made President. His inauguration 
and cabinet. Hamilton relieves the country from its burden of 
debt. The western Indians make war and are defeated. A treaty 
made with England. Washington's retirement and his farewell 
address. 

1797-1801. .John Adams is inaugurated as President. Hostile 
relations with France lead to a naval war. Unpopular laws injure 
the Federal party. The death of Washington. The election of 
1800 and the contest for the Presidency. The Constitution is 
amended. 

1801-1809. Thomas .Jefferson is inaugurated President in 
Washington city. A successful war is fought with Tripoli. The 
Louisiana territory is purchased from France. Lewis and Clark 
are sent to explore it. The treasonable career of Aaron Burr. 
England and France interfere with American commerce, American 
sailors are impressed for the British navy and a warship is fired 
upon. Embargo and Xon-Intercourse Acts are enacted. James 
Madison is elected President. 

1809-1812. Madison's tariff policy. Napoleon seizes American 
merchant ships. The British continue to impress American sailors. 
The frigate President avenges the Chesapeake. The Indians are 
defeated at Tippecanoe. War is declared against Great Britain. 



268 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 

1S12-1S15. Canada is invaded, Hull surrenders, and other 
leaders fail. Defeat on land and victory on the ocean. The 
famous deeds of the Constitution and other ships. Loss of the 
Chesapeake and the Essex. Victories of Perry on Lake Erie and 
Harrison on the Thames River. The Niagara and Lake Cham- 
plain victories. Washington is occupied and its public buildings 
are burned. Jackson quells the Creek Indians and defeats the 
British at New Orleans. War with Algiers. James Monroe is 
elected President. 

TOPICS FOR REVIEW. 

Oral or written. 

1. The New Natiox. — Its extent at the close of the Revolution — 
population — condition of the people, financially and socially — form 
of government. 

2. Colonial Government. — Forms — character of each — colonies 
in which each form prevailed. 

8. The Federal Government. — The Articles of Confederation — 
weakness of the government — the Constitutional Convention — features 
of the new government. 

4. The Early Administrations.— Hamilton's system of finance — 
cause of naval war with France — the Louisiana purchase and its ad- 
vantages — troubles with England and the embargo. 

5. The War of 1812 — principal events — America's naval supremacy 
— the burning of Washington — result of the war. 

6. Prominent Characters of the Period — A brief sketch of each. 

7. Interesting Incidents of the Period. 

reference books. 

1. McMaster's United States. 2. Johnston's American Politics. 3. 
Schouler's Thomas Jefferson. 4. Bryce's American Commonwealth. 
5. Roosevelt's Naval War of 1S12. 



PART vn 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 



1. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION! 

From 1817 to 1825 

539. A One=Party Era. — It was a unique period in the 
history of our country that followed the war with 
Great Britain, a period in which the party spirit van- 
ished and for a season all the Ameri- 
can people were of one political 
faith. The old party questions had 
vanished, no new ones had arisen 
to take their place, and for the only 
time in the history of our countr}^ 
political harmon}^ prevailed. While 
in his first election Monroe had a 
very large majority, in his second 
election, in 1820, he was the only 
candidate, and he would have 
received the entire electoral vote had not one elector 
voted against him, saying that the honor of a unan- 

' James Monroe, like all the Presidents before him except Adams, 
was a native of Virginia, where he was born in 1758. At the age 
of eighteen he entered the army of the Revolution, and served with 
distinction under Washington at Brandywine, Germantown, and 
Monmouth, He studied law, became active in political affairs, 
was appointed minister to France, Spain, and England in succession, 
and as special envoy to France, arranged the purchase of Louisiana. 
He was a plain, honest man whose chief aim was the good of his 
country. He was the third President "io die on July 4, this taking 
place in 1831. 

269 




James Monroe. 



270 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1816-24 

imous vote ought not to bo given to any President 
after Washington. 

540. A Commercial Invasion. — The close of the war led 
to unforeseen consequences. England made a nev/ 
invasion of the United States, this time a commercial 
one, and the small and poorly equipped factories which 
had arisen in this country during the war found them- 
selves brought into unequal competition with the well- 
developed workshops of Great Britain. The products 
of English looms were sent here in vast quantities and 
sold at very low prices, as if with the purpose of break- 
ing down the American manufactories and forcing the 
people to depend upon England for their goods. 

541. The Tariff Question Arises. — There was only one 
available method of overcoming this business trouble, 
which was causing deep distress in some sections. 
The tariff had been applied hitherto cliiefly to the 
raising of revenue, but it was now claimed to be neces- 
sary for the protection of the infant industries of the 
country against foreign competition. Petitions for 
such a protective tariff poured in upon Congress, and 
one was passed in 181G, increasing the rates of duty 
on cotton and woolen goods. Thus was inaugurated 
that question which has since been a leading one in 
American politics. 

542. The Tariff of 1824.— The new tariff did not check 
the influx of foreign goods, as had been hoped, and in 
1824 the question became prominent again. The 
tariff of 1816 had been supported by many Southerners 
and opposed by many of the merchants of New Eng- 
land, who had large commercial interests. By 1824 
a change had taken place, the South now advocating 



1819J MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 271 

free-trade as best suited to its agricultural interests, 
while manufactures had greatly developed in New 
England, and with them had arisen a large party in 
favor of protection. It was evident that the ''Era of 
Good Feeling," was nearing its end, and that party 
spirit would soon grow active again. 

543. The Slave=Holding Question. — The tariff question 
was not the only one that arose to divide public 
opinion, the slave-holding question also becoming 
prominent. In the early days of the country negro 
slavery was common in all the States, but slaves were 
less numerous in the North, where they were of little 
use, being kept chiefly as house-servants, than in the 
South, where they were largely employed as field- 
hands. This was especially the case after the cultiva- 
tion of cotton began. Slavery was early abohshed in 
the Northern States, immediate or gradual abolition 
having been provided for in all these States by 180^. It 
was not a popular institution in the South until after 
1793, when the invention of the cotton-gin led to a 
rapid increase in the growth of the cotton plant 
and the need of large numbers of laborers for its 
cultivation. 

544. New Territory Added. — In 1787, when the North- 
west Territory was organized, a bill was passed for- 
ever excluding slavery from that region. When the 
Louisiana purchase was made in 1803 this question 
arose again. Should slavery be admitted to the region 
west of the Mississippi? The South advocated this; 
the North opposed it; but the question remained an 
open one until 1819, when a proposition was made to 
adni't Missouri as a State. 



272 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1819 

545. Growth of the Union. — Several new States were 
admitted during Monroe's first term. Two of these 
were Southern States, Mississippi, admitted in IS17, 
and Alabama in 1810. A Northern State, Illinois, was 
admitted in 1818. Soon after two other Territories 
applied for admission as States, Maine and Missouri. 
This gave rise to one of the most bitterly contested 
questions the country had yet known. 

546. The Missouri Compromise. — There were now 
twenty-two States in all, eleven slave and eleven free. 
This gave the two great sections of the country an 

• equal representation in the Senate, and this equality 
the South was naturally anxious to preserve. As 
Maine would make a twelfth free State, the Southern 
members contended that Missouri should be admitted 
as a slave State, and thus preserve the balance. Many 
Northern members who objected to the extension of 
slavery strongly opposed this. 

A long and bitter debate followed. Never had there 
been so much adverse feeling displayed in Congress. 
Hostile political relations were replacing the era of 
peace. The debate ended in 1820 in a bill introduced by 
Jesse B. Thomas, of Illinois, and strongly supported 
by Henry Clay,^ a Southern member, who felt that 

' Henry Clay, one of America's greatest orators and statesmen, 
was born in Virginia in 1777. He was elected by Kentucky to the 
House of Representatives in 1809, and became its Speaker in I^W, 
a post he long held. He became Secretary of State under John 
Quincy Adams, was elected a member of the Senate, and was three 
times an unsuccessful candidate for the Presidency. He gained 
distinction as the originator of several important compromise bills. 
He died in 1852. 




1820J MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 273 

the deadlock in Congress could be broken only by a 
compromise. This bill proposed that Missouri should 
be admitted as a slave State, but -—- . 

that slavery should be forbidden 
in any other part of the Western 
country that lay north of the paral- 
lel of 36° 30'. This was the fa- 
mous Missouri Compromise, which 
removed the slavery cjuestion from 
national politics for a period of 
thirty years. As a consequence 
Maine was admitted in 1820 and „ 

Henry Clay. 

Missouri in 1821. 

547. The Florida Indians. — The tariff and slavery 
questions were the prominent ones of the Monroe 
administration, but there were others of equal impor- 
tance. One of these had to do with Florida, then held 
by Spain, the Indians of which, aided by runaway 
slaves and other lawless characters, made raids into 
Georgia and Alabama and brought on a condition of 
border warfare. 

548. Jackson Invades Florida. — Complaints were made 
to Spain, but the trouble continued, and finally Gen- 
eral Jackson, the hero of New Orleans, was sent by 
the President to deal with this affair. He was given 
permission to pursue the enemy across the border, 
but was not to attack any Spanish post without orders 
from Washington. 

Jackson w^as a headstrong man who paid little heed 
to orders. With a force of four thousand men, many 
of them Creek Indians, he pursued the Seminole 
Indians into Florida, drove them from point to point, 

18 



274 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1819 

and seized several Spanish forts and towns on the 
plea that their commanders were aiding the enemy. 
Two British traders were arrested on the charge of 
supplying the Indians with arms, and were tried and 
executed, though the evidence against them was 
far from complete. 

549. The Purchase of Florida. — Jackson thus, in a 
short time, brought this country into hostile relations 
with both Spain and Great Britain. Trouble was 
likely to arise, but as Spain saw plainly that Florida 
was sure to prove a troublesome possession, it offered 
in 1819 to sell that province to the United States for 
five million dollars. The offer was accepted, and the 
United States by this means gained an extension of 
its territory to the Gulf of Mexico. Spain also gave 
up all claim to the country lying west of the Rocky 
Mountains and north of the 42° parallel of latitude. 
This afterwards became known as the Oregon country. 

550. The National Highway.— In 1806, as already 
stated, a great national highway to the west had been 
started. This ran from Cumberland, Maryland, to 
Wheeling, in northwest Virginia. It was now extended 
into Ohio and gradually carried west, finally reaching 
the Mississippi by aid of the State governments. It 
was a broad and solid road, over which, in the days 
before the coming of the railroad, there moved west- 
ward a seemingly endless train of emigrant wagons. 

551. The Erie Canal. — The greatest public improve- 
ment of the period was one carried out by the State 
of New York. This was the Erie Canal, which was 
begun in 1817 and completed in 1825. This great 
work was three hundred and sixty-three miles long, 



1823] 



MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 



275 



stretching across the state from Lake Erie to the Hud- 
son River, and carried up hill-sides by locks and across 
rivers b}^ aqueducts. It proved of immense advantage 
to New York, vast quantities of grain and merchandise 
passing along it at greatly reduced freight charges. 




Transportation by Canal Boat. 

552. The Spanish Colonies Rebel. — We have now to 
speak of an event that gave the Monroe Administra- 
tion its greatest title to renown. During it the Ameri- 
can colonies of Spain were fighting for freedom and 
one after another won independence. Spain sought 
in vain to subdue the revolutionists and there was 
serious danger of some of the other nations of Europe 
coming to her aid. If they did so they would be likely 
to seize some of these colonies for themselves. 

553. The Monroe Doctrine. — This state of affairs led 
to the famous state paper known as the ''Monroe 
Doctrine." The statesmen of the United States 
watched these events closely, fearing that they might 



276 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1824 

give them neighbors more dangerous than Spai-n, and 
in 1823 President Monroe took a decided step. In his 
message to Congress in December of that year he spoke 
to the nations of Europe in the plainest language, 
declaring that the United States considered the 
American continents to be no longer open to coloniza- 
tion, and that this country would resent any attempt 
of a European power to interfere with an independent 
American country/ 

554. The Effect of Monroe's Words. — This plain state- 
ment had an immediate effect. The powers of Europe 
which had been secretly plotting to aid Spain at once 
drew back. There was no further thought of inter- 
ference in the rebellion of the Spanish colonics. It 
was a small thing to help Spain; it was a large one to 
enter into war with the United States. Russia, the 
only country which had made any show of taking 
possession of new American territory, and which was 
threatening California, by a treaty made in 1824 aban- 
doned all claim to the Pacific coast region south of 
latitude 54'' 40', the southern boundary of Alaska. 

555. Lafayette Visits America. — In 1824 an interest- 
ing event took place. General Lafayette, the most 
distinguished foreign hero of the Revolution, and the 

' The ]\Ionroe Dootrine declared "That the American continents, 
by the free and independent condition which they have assumed 
and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for 
future colonization by any European power. " Tt further declared 
that any attempt by an European power to oppress or control an 
independent American nation would be regarded as "the manifesta- 
tion of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States. " This 
was a diplomatic way of declaring that such an attempt would be 
resisted by force of arms. 



1824] MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 277 

special friend of Washington, visiting this country. 
This was done at the request of Congress and on the 
invitation of the President. Forty years had passed 
since he left this country. He was now nearly seventy 
and one of the last surviving aides of Washington, 
and the whole country rose to do him honor. Never 
was there a more enthusiastic reception. He spent 
more than a year in this country, visiting every State 
and meeting many of his old comrades in arms. Con- 
gress repaid him for the money he had spent in the 
American cause by voting him two hundred thousand 
dollars and twenty-four thousand acres of land, and 
sent him back to France in a new frigate named in 
his honor the Brandywine, after the battle in which 
he had taken part. 

556. The Change Seen by Lafayette. — Since Lafayette's 
departure in 1782 the States had grown to twenty- 
four, the less than three millions of people to nearly 
elever millions, and immense progress had been made 
in all lines of industry. The flag of the United States 
was seen in every sea and Europe was clothed with its 
cotton and fed with its grain. Peace and prosperity 
ruled and the country had started on a great career. 
When he had left this country it was weak and poor, 
exhausted by a great war and destitute of a strong 
government. Bounded then by the Mississippi River, it 
now extended to the Rocky Mountains and was soon to 
reach the Pacific Ocean. Cut off then by Spain from 
the waters of the Gulf, these now formed its southern 
boundary. It possessed a vast and rich domain, large 
enough to become one of the greatest nations of the 
world, and needed only time to achieve this destiny. 



278 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 



[1824 



2. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION' 

From 1825 to 1829 

557. The Election of 1824. — In the Presidential contest 
of 1824, though there was but one political party, there 
were four candidates nominated by their political friends. 
This led to an unlooked-for result. Andrew Jackson 
was the choice of the people, receiving ninety-nine elec- 
toral votes, while John Quincy Adams received eighty- 
four, William H. Crawford forty- 
one, and Henry Clay thirty-seven. 

But the Constitution requires a 
majority of the whole electoral vote 
to elect a President, and as Jack- 
son did not obtain this, the election 
was thrown into the House of Rep- 
resentatives, which w»s required to 
choose one of the highest three can- 
didates. As Henry Clay could not 
be chosen, his friends supported 
Adams, who was elected. John C. Calhoun, a popular 
orator and statesman of South Carolina, was made 
Vice President. 

558. Party Feeling Arises. — Much hostile feeling fol- 
lowed this settlement of the Presidential (luestion. 
Jackson's friends declared that he had been dealt with 

^ John Quincy Adams, sou of John Adams, was born in Massa- 
chusetts in 1767. From 1S03 to 1809 he was a member of the 
Senate, and was afterwards Minister to England and Secretary of 
State. He was the only President that returned to Congress 
serving as a Representative with much honor and respect from 
1831 until his death in 1848. His ability in debate won him the 
title of " the old man eloquent. " 




John Quincy Adams, 



1828J JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 279 

unjustly, and as the new President appointed Henry 
Clay Secretary of State, they believed that this was 
done to reward him for the votes of his friends. In 
later years this feeling went far to prevent Clay from 
being made President. 

559. The Development of New Parties. — The "Era of 
Good Feeling" was at an end. The one party which 
had existed for eight years was now divided into two, 
on the questions of the tariff and State rights. The 
party long known as the Democratic-Republican now 
dropped the latter part of its name, and became known 
as the Democratic party. It advocated low tariff and 
increased power in the States. The new party which 
arose in opposition took the name of National Repub- 
lican, and advocated a protective tariff, public im- 
provements at government expense, and an increase 
in the powers of the national government. This was 
the party supported by the new 
administration. Its general princi- 
ples were much the same as those 
of the existing Repubhcan party. 

560. A Tariff Increase. — The new 
part}' made its power felt in 1828 
by passing a tariff law, higher than 
that of 1824. Especially high 
duties were laid on wool and hemp. 
This tarif!' was not favorablv re- 

JoHN C. Calhoun. 

ceived and its enemies were bitter 
against it, calling it the '^tariff of abominations." The 
South opposed it strongly, and Vice President Calhoun, 
an earnest Democrat, went so far as to suggest that 
South Carolina should declare it "null and void" within 




280 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1819-26 

that State. Four years later his words bore fruit, for 
South Carolina attempted to nullify the tariff, that 
is, to declare it of no effect within the State limits. 

561. Internal Improvements. — President Adams was a 
strong advocate of internal improvements at the 
expense of the government. The national highway to 
the West, of which we have spoken, was one of these, 
and he desired Congress to vote money for public 
roads, canals, and fortifications, a national university, 
etc. Several such bills were passed, but the opposition 
to them was strong and years elapsed before the views 
of Adams gained active support. 

562. The Creek Indians Removed. — The policy of the 
Government towards the Indians has long been to 
remove them from their old hunting grounds and gather 
them in reservations, where they cannot interfere 
with the expansion of the white population. At an 
early date the people of Georgia sought to have the 
Creek tribes thus removed from their midst, and in 1802 
the government promised to do this. The Indians, 
however, bitterly opposed removal, and nothing was 
done until 1819, when Georgia demanded that the 
government should keep its word. 

The Creeks refused to consent until 1825, when some 
of their chiefs agreed to cede their lands and accept 
new ones beyond the Mississippi. When this act 
became known to the tribe they repudiated the treaty, 
put the treacherous chiefs to death, and threatened 
war if an attempt was made to remove them by force. 
But in 1826 they were induced to sign a new treaty, 
parting with most of their lands and accepting new 
ones in Indian Territory, a large tract which had been 
set aside for Indian occupation. 



1826] JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 281 

563. The Cause of Temperance. — Drunkenness was a 
very common evil in Colonial times and in the early 
period of the republic. Opposition to it grew slowly, 
but it was not until 182G that public sentiment was 
strongly aroused. Then a wave of temperance senti- 
ment swept over the country, and in the following 
years many thousands signed the pledge to abstain 
from intoxicating liquors. The State of Maine was the 
first to prohibit the manufacture and sale of intoxi- 
cating drinks. Some other States followed, but the 
prohibition movement gradually died away. 

It has of late years arisen again, a very active move- 
ment against the sale of liquor being in progress in 
many of the States. At present prohibition exists in 
eight States, and in many others the sale of liquor is 
greatly restricted, it being forbidden in some cases in 
so large a number of counties and towns as to amount 
to a virtual prohibition. 

564. The Anti=Masonic Party. — There is only one other 
event of the Adams administration that need be 
mentioned. This was the development of a new 
political party, called the Anti-Masonic. A man 
named Morgan, a member of the society of Freemasons, 
wrote a book in 1826, in which he professed to reveal 
the secrets of the society. He soon disappeared and 
many believed that the Masons had murdered him. 
The feeling against them was very strong, and a party 
arose demanding that no Freemason should be allowed 
to hold office. It nominated a candidate for the 
Presidency in 1832, but little was heard of it after 
that date. 



282 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 



[1828 




3. JACI^ON'S ADMINISTRATION' 

From 1829 to 1837 

565. The Election of 1828.— At the time of which we 
are speaking Andrew Jackson was the popular military 
favorite. Hitherto the Presidential chair had been filled 
by trained statesmen, but men now said that there was 

danger of an aristocratic class aris- 
ing, and that a man of the people 
was needed as President. Jackson 
was such a man, but it was his mili- 
tary glory that gave him success, as 
also the feeling that he had been 
unjustly deprived of the office in 
1824. He was therefore nominated 
again in 1828, and this time was 
elected by an electoral majority of 
ninety-five. John C. Calhoun was 
again elected Vice President. 

566. Character of Jackson. — A man of great obstinacy 
and always sure he was right, Jackson could not be 
moved from any course he decided to pursue. His good 
quality was honesty. He meant well in all he did, but 
he lacked experience and judgment in political affairs, 

' Andrew Jackson was born in North or South Carolina (it is 
not sure which) in 1767. An active, athletic lad, he was taken 
prisoner by the British at the age of fourteen and was wounded by 
an officer whose boots he refused to clean. He studied law and 
settled in Tennessee, where he became a leader and was sent to Con- 
gress in 1796. Taking an active part in military affairs, he was 
?hosen to command in the war against the Creeks, and at the battle 
of New Orleans in 1814 he won high fame, which was added to 
by his arbitrary dealings with the Spanish in Florida. After his 
term as President he retired to private life, and died in 1845. 



ANDRh;\v Jackson. 



1830] JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION 283 

and was never open to conviction. Thus his Cabinet 
officials had a very shght influence in the afi"airs of 
government, he ruHng with an inflexible will. 

567. Rotation in Office. — In previous administrations 
few removals of capable office-holders had been made, 
whatever their political opinions. Jackson took a 
different view. Believing that the members of his party 
had a right to the offices under him, he turned out of 
their positions all office-holders of the opposite party 
without regard to their ability. This system was known 
as ''rotation in office," and became designated as the 
"spoils system," from a remark of Senator Marcy in 
1834, to the effect that politics were conducted on the 
military principle that "to the victors belong the spoils. " 

From 1789 to 1829 less than a hundred removals 
from office had been made and some of these were for 
theft. Jackson dismissed fully two thousand, filling 
their places with members of his own party. The 
evil custom thus inaugurated of 
replacing faithful public servants 
by untried aspirants for office con- 
tinued until the development of the 
Civil Service Reform, more than 
fifty years afterwards. 

568. The Nullification Movement. 
— The most important event in 
Jackson's first term was the hot 
controversy in Congress over the 

•^ "^ _ Daniel VV ebster. 

tariff and the nullification move- 
ment in South Carohna. The bitter opposition of the 
South to the tariff of 1828 led to a remarkable debate 
in 1830, in which Daniel Webster, Senator from Massa- 




2S4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATlOxV [1832 

chusctts, an orator of remarkable powers, distinguished 
himself by the ablest speech ever heard in that body. 
It closed with the striking words "Liberty and 
Union, one and inseparable, now and forever. " 

A new tariff bill was passed in 1832, in which the 
average rate of duty was decreased. But the South was 
still dissatisfied, for the principle of protection to Ameri- 
can manufactures had been retained. As a result South 
Carolina now took the course which Calhoun had sug- 




Daniel WEBSTr;R Addressing the U. S. Senate. 

gested four years l^efore. A convention was held which 
declared the tariff null and void, forbade the collection 
of duties within the State, and threatened to secede 
from the Union if this action was interfered with. 

569. Jackson and the Nullifiers.— While President Jack- 
son was of Southern birth and an advocate of low 
tariff, he did not beheve in secession nor refusal to 
obey the laws. He issued a strong proclamation, 
saying that resistance to an Act of Congress would 
not Be permitted, and sustained his words by ordering 
a naval and a military force to proceed to Charleston. 



1832] 



JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION 



285 



This put an end to the secession movement, and the 
duties were collected in Charleston as usual. But to 
do away with the cause of dispute Congress passed a 
new tariff bill, providing for a gradual reduction of 
duties until 1842, when they would reach the status of 
a tariff for revenue only. This was a compromise sug- 
gested by Henry Clay. 

570. A Surplus of Money. — Never before or since has 
the country been so free from need of money as it was at 

that time. The debts ^-^ ■-^. 

/•emaining from the 

Revolution and the 

War of 1812 had all 

been paid, the country 

was free of debt, and a 

considerable surplus 

lay in the treasury. 

What to do with this 

became a question. It was finally decided to divide it 

among the States and twenty-eight milHon dollars were 

thus distributed. Soon after the revenue fell off, the 

needs of the government increased, and it was again in 

debt. It has been in debt ever since. 

571. The United States Bank.— One cause of this change 
in financial conditions was the following: The United 
States Bank, chartered for twenty years in 1816, would 
cease to exist in 1836 unless a new charter was granted. 
A charter was applied for in 1832, and Congress passed 
a bill granting the reciuest. But the President, who 
had been opposed politically by the bank, vetoed the 
bill, declaring that the bank was growing so powerful 
as to be dangerous to the country. 




The Capitol at Washington in 1831 



286 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1833 

572. The Deposits Removed. — Jackson was elected 
President a second time in 1832. This gave him 
an opportunity to destroy the power of the bank, 
from which he removed the government funds in 1833, 
distributing them among certain State banks, which 
the people called '' pet banks." Though the Senate 
censured him for this act, as an unconstitutional 
exercise of authority, he held to his point, and the 
United States Bank was ruined. 

573. A Period of Speculation. — The bank may not have 
been necessary to the country, but the government 
money was safer in its vaults than in those of the banks 
to which President Jackson consigned it. These 
loaned out the money freely to merchants and others, 
who used it for speculative purposes. Thus there 
grew up a wild speculation in western building lots. 
New cities were planned to be built in a few months 
and what is now known as a boom began. The desire 
to grow rich suddenly infected thousands, and led to 
reckless buying and selling on credit. This mania for 
speculation brought about a disastrous result, which 
showed itself in the next administration. 

574. War with the Indians. — ^On all sides pressure 
was now made on the Indians. The West was being 
rapidly settled, and its original inhabitants found their 
homes disturbed and their rights disregarded. War was 
the natural consequence. A chief named Black Hawk 
led the tribes of lUinois and AVisconsin against the set- 
tlers in 1832. The outbreak was soon put down and the 
Indians were forced to sign a treaty in which they gave 
up about ten million acres of land. For this they were 
to receive annual supplies and an annuity in money. 



1833-42] JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION 287 

575. The Cherokees and Seminoles. — There were Indian 
troubles in the South also. The Cherokees of Georgia 
and the . Seminoles of Florida were in the way of the 
whites, and efforts were made to deal with them as the 
Creeks had been dealt with. The Seminoles resisted and 
a war began with them in 1835 which lasted for nearly 
seven years. Osceola, their chief, was captured by 
treachery, and died in confinement, but the war dragged 
on until 1842. In the end most of the Seminoles were 
removed to the Indian Territory, but some of them 
remained and their descendants still survive in Florida. 

As for the Cherokees, they were taken by force to the 
Indian Territory in 1838 and under such conditions that 
neaily four thousand of them died in the removal. 
They were paid a large sum for their lands, but they were 
forced to accept the treaty, the whole affair being a 
flagrant example of the cruelty with which the whites 
have frequently treated the Indians. 

576. Steps of Progress. — During Jackson's administra- 
tion two new States were admitted, Arkansas in 1836 
and Michigan in 1837. Another interesting event 
was the giving the name of Chicago in 1833 to a small 
frontier settlement on Lake Michigan. It then con- 
tained about 500 inhabitants. It now contains nearly 
two millions. Other steps of progress included the 
introduction of the railroad, of which two thousand 
miles had been built by the end of Jackson's term of 
office, and the invention of the screw-propeller, the 
McCormick reaper and the Nasmyth steam-hammer. 
Gas was taking the place of oil for lighting, water- 
works were replacing wells, and chief among the 
smaller inventions was the useful friction match. 



288 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1831-36 

577. The Abolition Movement. — But while industrial 
progress was thus active, trouble was brewing in 
another direction. There had long been a strong 
opposition to the extension of slavery; there now 
grew up an opposition to its very existence, in the 
development of the Anti-Slavery or abolition party. 
The active work of this began in 1831, when William 
Lloyd Garrison started in Boston a newspaper which 




Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way. 

he called the Liberator, in which he advocated the 
"immediate and unconditional emancipation of every 
slave held in the United States." 

The movement was young as yet and met with strong 
opposition in the North, a mob on one occasion drag- 
ging Mr. Garrison through the streets of Boston with 
a rope tied around his body. But it was destined to 
grow, and very serious consequences were to arise 
from it in later years. 

578. The Election of 1836.— In 183(3 the candidate of 
the Democratic party was Martin Van Buren, who 
had been Vice President during Jackson's second term. 



1837] VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION 289 

The National Republican had been replaced by a new 
party, which took the name of the Whig party, and 
this nominated William Henry Harrison, a soldier of 
the war of 1812. Jackson used all his influence in 
favor of Van Buren, who was elected with the large 
majority of one hundred and seventy electoral votes. 

4. VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION* 
From 1837 to 1841 

579. A Reign of Speculation. — The fall of the United 
States Bank was followed by the rise of a multitude of 
State banks, manyof them with little 
capital and issuing notes which they 
were not likely to redeem. These 
became known as "wild-cat banks." 
Those which were favored by Presi- 
dent Jackson received the deposits of 
public money which he distributed, 
and this money was loaned freely 
to speculators, who used it for 
deals in western lands and many 

Martin Van Buren. 

other uncertain ventures. 

580. Dealings in Government Lands. — Much of the land 
dealt in belonged to the government, and when Presi- 
dent Jackson learned that it was being paid for in 

* Martin Van Buren, born in the State of New York in 1782, 
became prominent as a lawyer, and took an active part in political 
affairs, becoming a leader of the New York Democracy. In 1821 
he was elected to the Senate and in 1824 was made governor of 
New York. During Jackson's first term he served as Secretary of 
State and in the second term succeeded Calhoun as Vice President. 
After his term as President, he was a candidate again in 1840 and 
1848, but was defeated. He died in 1862. 
19 




290 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1838 

notes likely to become worthless, an order was issued 
that only gold should be accepted in payment for 
public lands. This took place near the end of Jack- 
son's administration, and was the source of serious 
trouble in that of his successor. 

581. The Panic of 1837.— In 1837, shortly after Van 
Buren took his seat, a large New Orleans business 
house, engaged in speculative ventures, failed. This 
caused wide-spread distrust. New failures came in 
rapid succession. The land for which high prices had 
been paid suddenly sank in value. It was offered for 
sale, but no one was ready to buy and disaster spread 
rapidly. Within ten days more than a hundred New 
York merchants were on the verge of ruin.. The bottom 
dropped out of the speculative boom, the recently high- 
priced lands and securities became a drug on the mar- 
ket, and within two months the failures in New York 
City alone reached the great sum of one hundred million 
dollars. 

582. A Great Business Depression. — The State banks 
quickly felt the trouble. Their notes came back in 
numbers for payment, there was no gold or silver in 
their vaults to redeem them, and the banks began to 
fail on all sides. Gold and silver vanished from cir- 
culation, the bank notes lost their value, and the 
government had to pay its own debts in paper mone^^ 

A frightful depression in business followed, the 
greatest the country had yet known. Mills and fac- 
tories closed their doors on all sides and thousands of 
workmen were left idle. Even the States felt the 
pressure, many of them having borrowed large sums 
from Europe for public improvements. Seven of the 



1840] VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION 291 

States were unable to pay the interest on these debts 
and one of them, Mississippi, refused to pay either 
interest or principal. In consequence American 
credit greatly suffered. 

583. The Sub=Treasury System. — A year passed before 
the panic ended, and then business very slowly recov- 
ered. Several years passed before prosperity came 
back. One result was that the administration grew 
afraid of depositing the government money in irre- 
sponsible banks, and recommended that a national 
treasury, to receive the public funds, should be estab- 
lished in Washington, with branches, or sub-treasuries, 
in the principal cities. 

There was strong opposition to this plan. The 
banks wanted the money and used all their influence 
in its favor. Adopted in 1840, it was repealed the 
next year. Adopted again in 1846, it has since re- 
mained in force. It has the one bad effect of with- 
drawing large sums of money from circulation, which 
is apt to add to the trouble in what are known as 
hard times. Of late years Congress has been seriously 
considering the best method of overcoming this 
difficulty. 

584. The Election of 1840. — The Van Buren adminis- 
tration, as may be seen, was one of deep public distress. 
This was in no sense the fault of the President or his 
party, but when he was nominated again, in 1840, it 
stood in the way of his election. The Whig party had 
again selected as its candidate the popular soldier, 
William Henry Harrison, and his name now swept the 
country. He had won the battle of Tippecanoe, had 
lived in a log cabin and was fond of hard cider, and in 



292 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1841 

the caini)aii2;n he was greeted as tlie "Hero of Tippe- 
canoe," hard eider was drunk in profusion, and log 
cabins were a great feature in the meetings. He was 
elected over Van Buren, with John Tyler for Vice Pres- 
ident, receiving the large majority of one hundred 
and seventy-four electoral votes. 

5. THE HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATION ^ 

From 1841 to 1845 

585. The Death of the President. — For forty years, since 
Jefferson's election in 1800, the Democratic party had 
been in power. Though it was 
defeated in 1840, its oi^ponents did 
not long remain in control. Presi- 
dent Harrison held his office for a 
very brief period, dying on April 4, 
1841, one month after his inaugu- 
ration. He was a man advanced 
in years and not accustomed to the 
stra^in of political life, ant! the 
oiiinion is entertained that the 

Un.LiAM Henry Hakkison ' 

importunity of office seekers caused 
his death. He was succeeded by Vice President Tyler 
who, though elected by the Whigs, held Democratic 
opinions, which he soon made manifest to those who 
had support(Ml him, so that the Whig administration 
had onlv a month's actual existence. 




' William Henry Harrison, born in Virginia in 1773, tlie son ot 
a governor of that State, had won his fame in tlie army, which he 
entered in 179L He took part in Wayne's campaign against the 
Indians, put down the outbreak under Tecumseh, and defeateil 
the British in the battle of the Tliames in 1S13. He served as 
governor of the Territory of Indiana and as a member of Congress, 
was candidate for the Prcsidencv in 1836 and was elected in 1S40. 



1841] HARRISON AND TYLKK ADMINISTRATION 293 



586. Tyler as President. Tlic jx^litieal .scntiMionts of 
John Tyler- wen; (juickly shown. Harrison had 
('all('(l an extra sessi(jn of Congress to eonsidcu- the 
financial condition of the country, and a bill was passed 
for the estabhshment of a new liank of the United 
States. To their ilismay, it was vetoed by President 
Tyler. Another bill was passed to meet his obj(!ctions, 
but he vetoed this also. 

The Presid(;nt's action led to a quarrel with the 
Whig party, then led by Henry Clay. They called 
him a renegade, and all of Harri- 
son's Cabinet resigned except Dan- 
iel Webster, Secretary of State, 
who was prevented from doing so 
l)y the fact that he was negotiat- 
ing a treaty with Great Britain. 
Until 1843 an open conflict existed 
between Tyler and the majority 
in Congress. Then the Democrats 
gained a majority and the power of 
the Whigs was for tiie time at an end. 

587. The Treaty with Great Britain. — The treaty which 
Webster, as Secretary of State, was negotiating had 
to do with the Ijoundary line between the United 
States and Canada, which had hitherto been a source 




.loifN Tyler. 



^ John Tyler was born in Virginia in 1790, and became a promi- 
nent member of the State Rights party, the Southern branch of the 
Whigs. He was the first \'ice President to succeed to the Presi- 
dency, and in this position offended the Northern Whigs by advo- 
cating free trade. He was president of the peace convention at 
W'ashington in 1861, then joined the Confederacy and died in 1862 
as a member of the Confederate Congress. 



294 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 



[1841 



of dispute. By it a boundary was established from 
the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains. Nothing was 
then done with the boundary west of the Rocky 
Mountains, for little thought was yet given to the 
Oregon country, to which both the United States and 
Great Britain laid claim, but which neither seemed to 
think of importance. 




I'LjiiiiENc-K OK Presiuf.nt Hoi'ston, of rKx\s, IS'Mj 
(while the Capitol was being built). 

588. The Oregon Country. — Soon after, however, this 
question became prominent, for emigrants from the 
States were now crossing the Rocky Mountains into 
Oregon, while the Hudson Bay Fur Company sent 
British agents into that country. Near the end of the 
Tyler administration the Oregon problem became a 
source of excitement, the claim of the American people 
now extending to the parallel of 54° 40', the southern 
boundary of Alaska. For a time the political war- 
cry was "Fifty-four forty or fight," but in 1846 a 



1836] HARRISON AND TYLl^R ADMINISTRATION 295 

treaty was made which fixed the boundary at 49^ 
N. latitude. This gave the Oregon territory to the 
United States and the northern country, now British 
Columbia, to Great Britain. 

589. Emigration to Texas. — An equally important ques- 
tion arose in the southwestern section of the country, 
where Louisiana bord- 
ered on the Mexican 
province of Texas, the ;^ 
boundary line being the ^~;, 
Sabine River. Many 
people from the South- 
ern States crossed this 
boundary into Texas, 
and by 1836 the Ameri- 
cans greatly exceeded 

in number the Mexicans in that thinly settled country. 

590. Texas in Insurrection. — The United States sought 
to purchase Texas in 1827 and 1829, but Mexico refused 
to sell, and treated the settlers in an oppressive man- 
ner. This led in 1836 to a revolt against the Mexican 
government, General Samuel Houston leading the 
revolting forces. General Santa Anna,^ military dicta- 
tor of Mexico, attempted to suppress the rebellion, 




The Alamo 



' Santa Anna's method was that of massacre. One party that 
surrendered were shot down in cold blood. At San Antonio a body 
of Texans, among them the celebrated hunter Davy Crockett, had 
taken refuge in a mission-house known as the Alamo, where they 
defended themselves bravely. Few of them remained alive when 
a surrender took place, and these were instantly killed by order of 
the Mexican leader. "Remember the Alamo" was the war-cry of 
the Texan armv at San Jacinto. 



296 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1845 

but met with an overwhelming defeat at San Jacinto, 
being taken prisoner and forced to acknowledge the 
independence of Texas, which was organized into a 
separate republic. 

591. The Annexation of Texas. — In 1837 the new repub- 
lic of Texas applied for admission to the United States. 
The South favored it, as a field for expansion, the 
North opposed it, fearing trouble with Mexico. The 
question remained unsettled for years. Finally, in the 
year 1844, the annexation of Texas became the cam- 
paign cry of the Democrats, under which they elected 
James K. Polk to the Presidency. As the people had 
thus expressed their will at the polls, an annexation 
bill was passed in Congress and was signed by Presi- 
dent Tyler. Texas accepted the offer and was admitted 
to the Union as a State in December, 1845. 

592. The Rhode Island Contest. — In addition to these 
events of leading importance, several of more local 
interest took place during President Tyler's term of 
office. One of these had to do with the State of Rhode 
Island. The government of this State had continued 
under the charter granted by Charles II. in 1663, and 
this gave the full right of suffrage only to the oldest 
sons of voters, all others needing to possess a certain 
amount of property. Under this about two-thirds of 
the people were deprived of the right of voting. 

593. The Dorr Rebellion. — A new constitution, doing 
away with this injustice, was prepared by the non- 
voters in 1841, but was rejected by the legal voters. 
Both parties now elected governors, the reform party 
choosing Thomas W. Dorr. When the latter attempted 
to perform the duties of his office the militia was called 



1840] HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATION 297 

out to prevent him, and his attempt to seize the State 
arsenal led to his having to flee from the State. But 
the reform movement led to the granting of a new 
constitution, which went into effect in 1843. When 
Dorr returned to the State in 1844 he was arrested for 
treason and sentenced to imprisonment for life. He 
was soon pardoned, however. The constitution of 
Rhode Island, as now existing, grants fuller suffrage 
privileges than the Dorr party demanded. 

594. The Anti=Renters. — New York also had a diffi- 
culty coming down from Colonial times. Some of the 
lands of the old Dutch patroons were still held by their 
descendants, who collected rent ' from the settlers. 
The rent was a very light one, consisting of "a few 
bushels of wheat, three or four fat fowls, and a day's 
work with horse and wagon, per year," but it was 
resisted as illegal. About 1840 many of the tenants 
refused to pay rent, and riots broke out, in which 
rent-payers were tarred and feathered and some of 
the officers who served warrants were killed. It was 
necessary to call out the militia to put down the rioters. 
Gradually the dispute was ended by the tenants buy- 
ing the rights of the proprietors, and this vestige of 
patroon rule passed away. 

595. The Rise of the Mormons. — A matter of a differ- 
ent kind had for some years been causing disquiet. 
This was the rise of a new religious sect, started in 
1830 by Joseph Smith, of New York, who published 
a work called the ''Book of Mormon," which he said 
contained a new revelation to mankind. He soon 
gained followers, who made their way west, and in 
time began to build a city in Illinois, called Nauvoo, 
on the banks of the Mississippi. 



298 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1843 

The main cause of the trouble that followed was 
another revelation which Smith professed to receive 
in 1843, in consequence of which he advised his fol- 
lowers to marry as many wives as they chose. This 
roused the surrounding people to violence, which the 
Mormons in Nauvoo, about fifteen thousand in number, 
resisted. As a result, Smith was arrested and impris- 
oned, and a mob broke into the prison and killed him 
and his brother. 

596. The Mormons Emigrate. — Brigham Young suc- 
ceeded Smith as Mormon leader. An able and vigorous 
man, he determined to lead his followers to a place in 
the far west where" they could live alone in the way 
they deemed proper. Setting out in 184G, in 1847 the}^ 
reached the region now known as Utah, settling in the 
vicinity of the Great Salt Lake. It was a barren coun- 
try, but the Mormons made it fertile by bringing 
water from the mountains, and now there is no more 
prolific region than that near Salt Lake City. 

597. Important Discoveries. — In 1844 one of the most 
signal of discoveries was made, that of electric tele- 
graphy. Samuel F. B. Morse, who had been experi- 
menting for years, in this year completed a telegraph 
line between Baltimore and Washington, and sent the 
significant message, "What hath God wrought!" 

Another discovery of importance was made by Dr. 
William T. G. Morton, of Boston, though others 
claimed the honor of the discovery. This was the 
principle of anaesthesia, or the causing of artificial 
sleep by breathing the vapor of ether. Before this 
time surgical operations had been attended with 
great pain. They could now be performed without 



1844] POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 299 

suffering. Thus the use of ether and other sleep 
inducers has proved of the greatest benefit to mankind. 

598. Emigration. — Emigration from Europe to the 
United States had now become great, and was adding 
rapidly to the population. Regular lines of steamships 
crossed the ocean, and people poured into the country, 
at the rate of over three thousand weekly. Between 
1840 and 1850 nearly two millions of settlers arrived, 
twice as many as had come in forty years before. 

599. The Election of 1844.— In 1844 the Whig party 
nominated the favorite Southern orator, Henry Clay, 
for its candidate. It was his third nomination, and 
this time there was the strongest expectation of his 
election. It was lost through his failure to acknowledge 
his honest opinions. He did not favor the annexation 
of Texas, but would not say so for fear of losing South- 
ern votes. As a result he lost the State of New York 
by a small majority and James K. Polk, the Demo- 
cratic candidate, was elected. 

6. POLK'S ADMINISTRATION » 
From 1845 to 1849 

600. The Texas Boundary Question. — Texas, as already 
stated, was accepted by a bill passed at the end of 
Tyler's administration, and was admitted to the 

^ James Knox Polk was born in North Carolina in 1795. He 
served fourteen years in Congress as a member from Tennessee, 
and was Speaker of the House for four years. In 1839 he was 
elected Governor of Tennessee. His was the first instance of the 
choice of a "dark horse" in a Presidential nomination, that is, of 
a man of no special prominence who is chosen as a compromise 
between opposing interests. He strongly favored the annexa- 
tion of Texas, which was the leading ciuestion in the contest. He 
died in 1849, a few months after the end of his term. 



300 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 



[lS4tJ 




James K. Poi.k. 



Union in December, 1845. This act brought war upon 
the country. Though Mexico had not sought to win 
back its lost province, it bitterly resented its annexation 
by the United States, and was 
ready to fight for its recovery, 
and the question of the boundary 
between Texas and Mexico soon led 
to war. Texas claimed the Rio 
Grande River for its southwest 
boundary. Mexico said that the 
Nueces River was the true boun- 
dary. Between these rivers was a 
wide sirip of land which both coun- 
tries claimed and sought to occupy. 

601. The War Begins. — In the spring of 1846 General 
Zachary Taylor, then at Corpus Christi, on the Nueces, 
with a body of troops, was ordered to proceed to the 
Rio Grande. The Mexicans bade him retire, and on 
his refusal sent troops across the river. On April 24 
a fight took place between the hostile forces, and on 
May 8 and 9 there were sharp contests, the Mexicans 
being forced to retreat across the river. On May 13, 
on the news of the first fight being received at Wash- 
ington, a declaration of war was made and Congress 
called for fifty thousand volunteers. 

602. The Invasion of Mexico. — General Taylor at once 
crossed the Rio Grande and took possession of the 
town of Matamoros. Receiving reinforcements in 
September, he marched into the country and on the 
24th captured the stronghold of Monterey after four 
days of desperate fighting. Meanwhile General Win- 
field Scott had been ordered to advance on the Mexican 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 



301 




302 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 



[1847 



capital by the way of the seaport of Vera Cruz, and in 
making up his force many of Taylor's men were taken. 
603. Taylor at Buena Vista. — Taylor, thus left with 
only about 5,000 men, was attacked on February 23, 
1847, by Santa Anna, the Mexican leader, with a force of 
20,000. Taylor was stationed in a mountain pass at 
Buena Vista, when the Mexicans suddenly came upon 
him. He had a strong position and held his ground so 
firmly that the Mexicans were defeated with heavy 




Battle of Bt;ena Vista. 

loss. This, the most spectacular battle of the war, 
made Taylor the popular hero of the contest. 

604. Scott's Campaign. — Scott's line of advance was 
by sea to Vera Cruz, which city was bombarded and 
taken March 27, 1847. Then he led his army on a two 
hundred miles' march through the heart of the country, 
winning several victories on the march, and reaching 
the vicinity of the City of Mexico in September. Here 
some hard fighting took place, ending with an assault 
on the strong hill fortress of Chapultepec, which was 
taken by storm on September 13. The next day the 



1848] 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 



303 



army marched into the city and hoisted the American 
flag over the ancient palace known as the "Halls of 
the Montezumas." The war was now practically at an 
end, the American forces having not once been defeated. 
605. Kearney and Fremont. — We have not yet told the 
whole story. General Stephen W. Kearney had marched 
overland to New Mexico, taking the city of Santa Fe 
and occupying the country. At the same time Cap- 




The Battle of Chapultepec, (from painting of James Walker in the Capitol at 

Washington.) 

tain John C. Fremont had invaded California, to which 
a naval expedition had also been sent. When the war 
ended these great regions were in American hands. 
606. The Results of the War. — A treaty of peace was 
signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico, February 2, 
18-18. In it Mexico gave up all claim upon Texas, and 
yielded to the United States the provinces of New 
Mexico and California, then occupied by American 
troops. The United States agreed to reimburse Mexico 
for this territory by a payment of $15,000,000 and by 
assuming a debt of about .$3,500,000 due by Mexico to 



304 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1848 

American citizens. In 1853, five years later, to settle 
a dispute about the boundary, the United States paid 
Mexico $10,000,000 for a tract in the south of New 
Mexico and Arizona. This transaction, negotiated by 
James Gadsden, became known as the Gadsden Pur- 
chase. As a result of the war the United States had thus 
gained more than 590,000 square miles of new terri- 
tory, or, including Texas, more than 965,000 square 
miles. Mexico, in all, lost more than half its territory, 
though this was a thinly settled and unproductive half. 

607. Gold Discovered in California. — As it proved, Mex- 
ico was ignorant of the real value of the region it had lost. 
In January, 1848, just before the treaty of peace was 
signed, a man engaged in digging a mill-race in the Sac- 
ramento Valley discovered in its gravel deposits shining 
particles of gold. The news of this valuable discovery 
spread. The search for gold became active and it was 
widely found. "Gold was everywhere," we are told, 
*'in the soil, in the river sand, in the mountain rock." 
San Francisco, then a town of four hundred inhabitants, 
was deserted by those in search of the yellow treasure. 

608. The Gold Fever. — The desire to grow rich rapidly 
spread through all the country and thousands sought 
the land of gold, some going by water, some crossing 
the mountains and plains. In a brief time the popula- 
tion of San Francisco grew to twenty thousand, while 
a far greater number flocked to the mines. Within 
seven years from the discovery of gold nearly five 
hundred million dollars' worth had been obtained. 
Then many of the people turned to the cultivation of 
the soil and found in the fruits and farm products of 
California a richer source of wealth than in its mines. 



18481 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 



305 



609. Admission of New States. — During the Polk 
administration three new States were added to the 
Union. Florida had been admitted on the last 'day 
of President Tyler's term, and Texas, as already stated, 
in December, 1845. Iowa was added in 1846 and 
Wisconsin in 1848. These made the number of slave 
and free States again equal, there being fifteen of each. 
But the equality ended here, for no slave States were 
afterwards added to the Union. 




San Francisco about 1835. 

610. The Election of 1848. — When the time came for a 
new Presidential contest there were three parties in the 
field. To the Democratic and Whig parties was added a 
Free Soil party, made up of those who opposed the exten- 
sion of slavery. It nominated Martin Van Buren for 
President. The Democratic candidate was General 
Lewis Cass, while the Whigs chose the popular hero of the 
late war. General Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore being 
selected for Vice President. The Whigs were successful, 
Taylor receiving a majority of thirty-six electoral votes. 

20 



306 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 



SUMMARY OF EVENTS. 

1816-1824. England invades America with goods and to prevent 
this protective tariffs are passed in 1816 and 1824. A dispute arises 
about the extension of slavery and is settled in 1820 by the Missouri 
Compromise, which Hmits slave territory. General Jackson invades 
Florida on account of Indian raids, and Spain sells that country to 
the United States. The revolt of the Spanish provinces leads in 
1823 to the celebrated Monroe Doctrine. Lafayette visits America. 

1824-1828. The 1824 election goes to the House and Jackson, 
who has the highest electoral vote, is defeated by Adams. The 
"Era of Good Feeling" ends and party spirit develops. The 
protection tariff of 1828 arouses violent opposition in the South. 
The Creek Indians are removed from Georgia. A temperance 
crusade begins. 

1829-1836. Jackson introduces the "spoils system" in oflEice- 
holding. South Carolina seeks to nullify the tariff bill, but Jackson 
enforces the law, and a compromise tariff is enacted. The charter of 
the United States Bank is vetoed and the bank ruined by the removal 
of the government funds. Indian wars break out in the West and 
South. A movement for the abolition of slavery is instituted. 

1837-1840. A period of wild speculation in Western lands has 
arisen from the development of ''wild-cat banks" and the distribution 
among them of the government funds. It is followed by a great finan- 
cial panic, beginning in 1837 and causing great distress. The sub- 
treasury system is adopted for the safcguardingof the public funds. 

1841-1845. President Harrison dies in office and Tyler succeeds 
to the office; the first instance of a Vice President becoming 
President. The Whigs lose their power in the government. An 
important boundary treaty is negotiated with Great Britain. 
Texas revolts against INIexico, wins its independence, and is annexed 
by the United States. Rhode Island gives up its old charter con- 
stitution. The Mormons rouse opposition and emigrate to Utah. 

1846-1848. Henry Clay is defeated for the Presidency on account 
of the Texas annexation question. This question leads to war with 
Mexico, in which that country is defeated and loses a large part 
of its territory. The discovery of gold in California brings about 
a rapid settling of that new section of the United States. 



PART VIII 

A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY 



1. TAYLOR'S 1 AKD FILLMORE'S ^ ADMINISTRATIONS 
From 1849 to 1853 

611. The Slavery System. — The period to which we 
have now come was one of the most critical in the 
history of the United States, one which led to the great 
civil war that for four years desolated the country. 
The cause of this was the system of negro slavery which 
prevailed in the Southern States, and which led to 
excited debates in Congress and intense feeling through- 
out the country. It is this subject to which the course 
of our history now brings us. 

1 Zachary Taylor was born in Mrginia in 17S4, his parents 
soon after removing to Kentuck}-. He was made a lieutenant in the 
army in 1S08, served in the War of IS 12 and the Black Hawk and 
Seminole Wars, and was a major general in command in the 
Mexican War. Here his simplicity of manner and quickness of 
action gained him the title of "Old Rough and Ready.'' He knew 
nothing of politics, but filled the Presidential office acceptably 
during his brief term. 

^ Millard Fillmore was born in New York in 1800. He practiced 
law and took part in Whig party affairs, and was successively elected 
to the New Y^ork Assembly and to Congress. He was serving as 
Comptroller of New Y'ork State when nominated for Vice Presi- 
dent. While esteemed for ability and integrity, he lost popular- 
ity with his party by signing the Fugitive Slave Bill. He was 
nominated for the Presidency by the American party in 1S56 and 
died in 1874. 

307 



308 



A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY 



[1848 




Zachary Taylor. 



612. The Abolition Movement. — The ^Missouri Com- 
promise of 1820, from whicli so much was hoped, mot 
with opposition as time went on. The abohtion move- 
ment, originated in Boston in 1831, and at first very 

unpopular in North and South 
ahke, steadily gained adherents in 
the North, and by the time to 
which we have now come a strong 
anti-slaver}" party had arisen. Its 
strongest sui)]K)rter in Congress was 
the former President John Quincy 
Adams, who from 1831 until his 
death in 1848 kept up its discus- 
sion, much to the annoyance of a 
majority of the members. 

613. The Extension of Slave Territory. — The Missouri 
Compromise })revented the introduction of slavery 
into any part of the western country north of 36° 30', 
but the region south of this latitude was open to its 
extension, and it was for this reason that the South 
favored the annexation of Texas. It was, indeed, 
proposed to divide Texas into four states and thus give 
the South a stronger representation in tlie Senate, 
but no steps towards this were ever taken, though 
Texas was much larger than any of the other States. 

614. The Wilmot Proviso. — The result of the war with 
Mexico was a large acquisition of n(>w territory into 
which slavery could legally 1)e introduced. This 
acquisition was foreseen when tin; war began, and in 
1846 David Wilmot, a Democratic member from 
Pennsylvania, offered an amendment to the appropria- 
tion bill before Congress, to the effect that slavery 



1S50] TAYLOR AND FILLMORE ADMINISTRATIONS 309 

should be prohibited in the territory likely to be ac- 
quired from Mexico. This amendment, known in history 
as the " Wilmot Proviso," gave rise to a heated debate, 
and the fact that the majority defeating it was small 
showed that the anti-slavery sentiment had become 
strong in Congress. 

615. The Political Problems of 1850. — In the first year 
of the Taylor administration the question dealt with 




Henry Clay's Speech in the Senate in 1850. 

in the Wilmot Proviso arose again. The Mexican terri- 
tory had now been acquired; California, which had 
rapidly grown populous, was demanding admission as 
a State: New Mexico and Utah were in condition to be 
organized as Territories, and the status of slavery 
within their borders became the chief problem before 
Congress. There were other questions also, the South 
demanding a more efficient law for the return of run- 
away slaves to their owners, and the anti-slavery 



310 A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1850 

party in the North comphiining that slave-holding was 
permitted within the city of Washington. 

616. The Compromise of 1850. — Those questions, as 
may well l)e supposed, gave rise to long and heated 
debates. Threats of secession were made on both 
sides. Moderate men sought to bring about a satis- 
factory settlement, and this was finally achieved by 
Henry Clay, the author of the Missouri Compromise of 
thirty years before, who now offered a new compromise 
measure. This became known as the "Omnibus Bill," 
from the many provisions it contained. These were 
the following: 

1. California should be admitted as a free State. 

2. New Mexico and Utah should be made into 
Territories and the question of the admission of slavery 
be left for their people to decide. 

3. Texas should give up a part of the territory it 
claimed in the west and be paid ten million dollars 
as a recompense. 

4. The slave-trade should be prohibited within the 
District of Columbia. 

5. A stringent law for the return of fugitive slaves 
should be passed. 

This bill could not be dealt with as a whole, but all 
its sections were adopted in succession, and many 
received it wuth satisfaction, believing that it would 
bring to an end the dispute about slaver5^ Such was 
the belief of Clay, who died two years later. He failed 
to foresee what time would bring forth. 

617. The Fugitive Slave Law. — It was the law for the 
return of runaway slaves that first made trouble. 
It was very stringent, no negro arrested being allowed 



1850J TAYLOR AND FILLMORE ADMINISTRATIONS 311 



to testify in his own behalf or to claim trial by jury, 
while all persons called upon by the United States mar- 
shal for aid were required to assist him. Any one who 
aided a fugitive to escape could be fined and imprisoned. 
In the last two provisions the law failed. Few per- 
sons in the North were willing to aid in an arrest. 
Many assisted in the escape of slaves, the secret 
methods employed by them becoming known as the 
"Underground Railroad." In some cases the attempt 
to capture fugitives gave rise to riots, while slaves who 
had been seized were rescued. The law added much to 
the strength of the anti-slavery part}', and in many 
States personal liberty laws were enacted, with the 
purpose of obstructing its operation. 

618. The President Dies. — While these events were in 
operation the President died, passing away on the 
9th of July, 1850. Vice President 

Fillmore succeeded him. In this """• 

respect the Whigs were very un- 
fortunate, both the Presidents 
elected by them dying after a 
brief term of service. Several of 
the great statesmen and orators 
of the country died during this 
administration, Calhoun dying a 
short time before the President 

Mn.l.\Hli t ILLMORE. 

and Clay and Webster in 1852. 

619. The Country Develops. — During Fillmore's term 
of office Httle of political importance took place. 
Clay's compromise bill having for the time brought 
harmony to Congress. Meanwhile the country was 
rapidly developing in population, railroads, telegraphs, 




312 A TERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1852 

and manufactures, and the broad region of the West 
was being widely settled. Invention was also active, 
the sewing machine and the india-rubber process 
being its most important productions. 

In 1849 a new department, named the Department 
of the Interior, was added to the government and 
given charge of all such interests as the public lands, 
pensions, census, education, and Indian affairs. In 
1852 an important postal reform was made, the rate 
of postage on letters being reduced to three cents per 
half-ounce for all parts of the country except the 
extreme West. The story of postal service before this 
period is interesting. The first regular mail route was 
instituted in 1672, between New York and Boston, a 
month being occupied in the round trip. In 1792 the 
rate was made eight cents for a letter under forty 
miles, ten cents under eighty miles, and so on. In 
1845 it was five cents per half-ounce for three hundred 
miles, ten cents for a greater distance. In 1852 the 
rate was changed as above stated, in 1863 it was made 
three cents for all distances, in 1883 it was made two 
cents per half ounce and in 1885 two cents per ounce. 

620. The Election of 1852.— In the Presidential elec- 
tion of 1852 the same parties as in 1848 nominated 
candidates — the Whig, the Democratic, and the Free 
Soil — General Winfield Scott being the Whig candi- 
date, Franklin Pierce the Democratic, John P. Hale the 
Free Soil. The last received no electoral votes, and 
Scott obtained but forty-two. Pierce received two 
hundred and fifty-four, and was thus elected by a 
very large majority. 



1853] 



PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 



313 




Franklin Pierce. 



2. PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION » 

From 1853 to 1857 

621. The Slavery Contest Reopened. — The slavery con- 
test, which had been temporarily closed by the com- 
promise of 1850, was opened again under the Pierce 
administration, and the dispute soon 
gained new bitterness. The event 
which brought it again into promi- 
nence in Congress was a bill advo- 
cated by Stephen A. Douglas, an 
influential Democratic Senator from 
Illinois. This proposed the organiza- 
tion of two new Territories from the 
Louisiana Purchase, west of Missouri 
and Iowa, the northern to be called 
Nebraska, the southern Kansas. 

622. The Kansas=Nebraska Bill. — These Territories lay 
north of the parallel of 36° 30', and therefore, under the 
terms of the Missouri Compromise, could not be made 
into slave States. But Douglas threw a bombshell into 
the ranks of the anti-slavery party by proposing that the 
new Territories should be open to slavery if their inhabi- 
tants desired it. This feature of the bill created much 
excitement. Northern members said it was a breach 
of faith and a virtual repeal of the Missouri Compromise. 
But the pro-slavery members were in the majority and 
the bill passed and was signed by the President. 

1 Franklin Pierce was a native of New Hampshire, born in 1804. 
Making the law his profession, he was elected by the Democratic 
party to the House of Representatives in 1833 and to the Senate in 
1837. He took part in the Mexican War as colonel and brigadier- 
general. He was a zealous pro-slavery Democrat, but espoused the 
cause of the North in the Civil War. He died in 1869. 



314 A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1855 

623. The Fight for Kansas. — Neither party expected 
what followed. The abolition party at once took steps 
to defeat the purpose of the bill by colonizing Kansas 
with their adherents. The pro-slavery party also sent 
colonies into the new Territory. Their hostile feeling 
soon led to contests in which blood was shed. Lawrence, 
a small town founded by the anti-slavery settlers, 
was attacked and plundered by the opposing forces. 
In return a party of anti-slaver}^ men, led by an old 
man named John Brown, marched against and killed 
several of their opponents, crossed into Missouri, 
destroyed property, freed a number of slaves, and finally 
shot one of the slave-holders. 

624. How the Contest Ended. — ^Acts of violence and 
bloodshed like this couhl not go on without arousing 
the entire country. From 1855 to 1858 war existed in 
Kansas, intensifying everywhere the hostility between 
the national factions. In the end the anti-slavery set- 
tlers won by force of numbers, all hope of making a 
slave State of Kansas being abandoned. It was ad- 
mitted as a free State in 1861. 

625. Charles Sumner Assailed. — The state of affairs in 
Kansas was reflected in Congress, in whose halls a war 
of words raged, party spirit at times growing violent. 
In 185G this hostile sentiment led to an act of violence. 
Charles Sumner, a Senator from Massachusetts, and a 
leader in the anti-slavery ranks, made a vigorous 
speech on affairs in Kansas, in which he spoke severely 
of one of the Senatoi's from South Carolina. Two days 
later Preston S. Brooks, a Representative fi-om that 
State and a nephew of the Senator attacked, entered 
the Senate chamber after adjournment and made a 



1856] PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 315 

violent assault on Sumner while seated at his desk. 
He beat him over the head with a heav}^ cane, injuring 
him so severely that it was four years before he was 
able to resume his seat. 

626. Brooks is Re-elected. — This act of personal vio- 
lence added greatly to the hostile feeling that pre- 
vailed. Congress passed a vote of censure on Brooks 
and a Washington court fined him. He at once resigned, 
but his constituents showed their approval of his act 
by immediately re-electing him. His return to Con- 
gress intensified the feeling of irritation in the North. 
Though there was as yet no expectation of war, the 
tide was setting decidedly in that direction. 

627. The Republican Party Organized. — One effect of 
the trend of events w^as the formation of a new political 
party in the North. The passage of the Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill was follow^ed by an election in which the 
opponents of slavery extension gained a majority in the 
House of Representatives. Known first as "Anti- 
Nebraska men," the slavery extension opponents soon 
organized into a party which took the name of Repub- 
lican. Into it came the remnants of the old Whig and 
Free Soil parties, which now ceased to exist, and also 
many Democrats who were opposed to the extension of 
slavery. The new party did not propose to attack slav- 
ery where it already existed, and it thus failed to win 
over the advocates of abolition. 

628. The American Party. — In 1852 a party had 
arisen with the purpose of restricting immigration, and 
especially of putting an end to the evasion of the natu- 
ralization laws, by which many newcomers were 
quickly made citizens and often elected to official posi- 



316 



A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY 



[1856 



tions soon after landing. This party proposed to 
confine the suffrage to native Americans, or give it to 
foreigners only after long residence. 

The meetings of the party were held secretly and its 
members., when asked any questions about it, usually 
replied, "I don't know." From this it l^ecame known 
as the ''Know Nothing" party. But under the exist- 
ing condition of national feeling people had little 
inclination to support any side issues, and after the 
election of 185G this party disappeared. 




Commodore Perry Mketing the Commissioners at Yokohama. 



629. The Opening of Japan. — Of the events of a non- 
political character which took i)lace during the Pierce 
administration, the most important was the opening 
of Japan to foreign intercourse. For several centuries 
the ports of that empire had been almost completely 
closed to commerce, and a strong prejudice existed 
there, as also in China and Korea, against intercourse 
with foreign nations. In 1853 an effort was made on 



1853-56] PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 317 

the part of the United States to break down this policy 
of exclusion, Commodore Matthew C. Perry being sent 
with a squadron of war-vessels to Japan to endeavor 
to obtain a treaty of commerce. Though an effort 
was made to repel him, his resolute persistence won, 
and in 1854 he obtained the desired treaty. 

This was a victory of much moment to the United 
States, as other nations had tried to open Japan in 
vain, and the Japanese now honor the memory of 
Perry as the man who first set them upon the track of 
progress, which they have since so diligently pursued. 

630. The World's Fair in New York. — Another event 
of interest was the World's Fair held in New York in 
1853. No such fair had hitherto been held outside of 
France, except the Crystal Palace Exhibition in 
London in 1851. The New York Fair, while on a 
small scale, was useful in making the people of this 
country acquainted with many valuable European 
products not before known to them. It was also 
useful in showing the great progress which America 
had made in the invention of labor-saving machinery. 
Its power-looms, printing-presses, sewing-machines, 
reapers and mowers, and various other machines 
were as much of a revelation to Europe as various 
European products were to us. 

631. The Election of 1856. — In the 1856 election the 
new Republican party first entered the field of national 
politics, choosing for its candidate John C. Fremont, 
distinguished as the ''Pathfinder of the West" and 
for his aid in the acquisition of California. The Ameri- 
can party nominated Millard Fillmore, late President,, 
The Democratic party chose for its standard bearer 



318 A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1857 

James Buchanan, a prominent Democratic statesman 
of Pennsylvania. John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, 
was nominated for Vice President. 

In the election that followed, Buchanan won by a 
plurahty of fifty-two electoral votes, but the new 
party carried eleven out of the fifteen free States, 
thus showing an unexpected strength in the new can- 
didate for public support. The American party won 
only the State of Maryland. 

3. BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION ^ 
From 1857 to 1861 

632. Growth of Abolitionism. — James Buchanan took 
his seat on the 4th of March, 1857. He succeeded to a 
period of storm and stress. The hostility between the 
two sections of the country was 
growing with dangerous rapidity, the 
anti-slavery party was fast gaining 
new strength, and the strong Repub- 
lican vote had alarmed the South- 
ern leaders. Far-seeing statesmen 
began to fear that war might result. 
633. The Dred Scott Case. — Presi- 
dent Buchanan was only two days 
in office when a judgment was ren- 

Jamks Buchanan. " '=' 

dered by the Supreme Court of the 
United States which added greatly to the elements of 
discord. This was the settlement of what was known 

* James Buchanan was born in Pennsylvania in 1791. An able 
lawyer and Democratic statesman, he served in Congress 1820-31, 
was Minister to Russia 1832-34, and was in the Senate 1834-4.5. 
He was Secretary of State under President Polk and Minister to 
England under Pierce. He died in 1868. 




1859] BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 319 

as the Dred Scott case. Dred Scott was a siave whose 
owner took him from Missouri to IHinois in 1834, and 
after four years there removed into Minnesota Terri- 
tory. After their return to Missouri Scott was whipped 
for some fault, and brought suit for assault and bat- 
tery, claiming to be a freeman, from his long residence 
on free soil. 

The case was tried in several courts and finally 
reached the Supreme Court, which gave a decision 
against Scott's claim to be a free citizen. It declared 
that slave owners had a right to take their slaves 
where they pleased, just as they could take any other 
article of property. This decision startled the North, 
since it practically declared that slaves might be 
kept as such in any State of the Union. It seemed to 
open the whole country to slavery extension. 

634. The John Brown Raid. — Two years afterwards an 
event occurred which threw fresh fuel upon the flames. 
John Brown, of whom we have 
spoken as a leader in the 
Kansas troubles, was an old 
man who regarded slavery 
with the hatred of a fanatic. 
In 1859 he led a party of fol- 
lowers as fanatical as himself 
to the vicinity of Harpers John brown's fort at harpers 

Ferry. 

Ferry, with the wud purpose 

of starting an insurrection among the slaves, fancying 
thai if they had a leader they would rise against their 
masters and begin a war for freedom. 

One night in October he attacked and seized the 
arsenal at Harpers Ferry, with the view of making 




320 A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1857 

this a rallying place for slaves, whom he expected to 
come in numbers to his aid. He utterly misunder- 
stood the sentiment of the slaves of Virginia toward 
their masters, and his hopeless enterprise quickly 
reached its natural end. In the capture of the arsenal 
some of Brown's followers were killed, and he and six 
others of his band were taken, tried, and hanged. 
Two only of the party escaped. 

This attempt found little support in the North, 
many men among the ardent abolitionists looking 
upon it as an act of folly or madness, though others 
looked upon Brown as a martyr. In the South it 
aroused fears of the horrors of a negro insurrection and 
did much to increase the stringcnc}^ of the situation. 

635. An Unhealthy State of Business. — Such were the 
political aspects of the situation. In the midst of them 
a new trouble suddenly appeared. It was a time of 
over-speculation and too great stimulation of business, 
due in a measure to the rapid increase in wealth arising 
from the gold production of California. Railroads were 
built more rapidly than needed; more goods were 
made than could be sold; undue credits were given; 
the whole business community was in an unhealthy 
condition. 

636. The Panic of 1857. — The over-expansion came to 
a sudden end in the failure of a large business house of 
Cincinnati in August, 1857. Other failures followed, 
especially among the State banks, which had taken 
an active part in the speculative movement and which 
went down almost in a heap. Bank-notes became 
worthless and money almost vanished from circulation. 
Thousands of business men were ruined and mtdti- 



1858] 



BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 



321 



tuclcs of working people reduced to destitution. Several 
years elapsed before this state of affairs passed away. 

637. An Ocean Telegraph. — There was one important 
scientific event of which we must speak in passing. 
This was the laying of an electric telegraph line under 
the Atlantic. Cyrus W. Field, a business man of New 
York, was the originator of this enterprise, which was 
completed in 1858, the cable composed of v;ires being 




Laying the Atlantic Cable. 



laid from Ireland to Newfoundland and a few messages 
sent across it. It then failed to work, but its possi- 
bility had been proved, and Field continued his efforts 
until a successful cable was laid in 186G. 

638. Two Citizens of Illinois, — The Presidential elec^ 
tion of 18G0 was the most momentous in the history of 
our country. It was preceded by a series of events of 
which it is important to speak, since they led to the 
nomination of the two leading candidates. These were 

21 



322 A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1858 

citizens of Illinois, one of them being Stephen A. 
Douglas, the Senator who had supported in Congress 
the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. The other was Abraham 
Lincoln, an orator whose fame was as yet local, but 
who in a few years was to win a national reputation. 
In 1858 these two men came into competition in a 
political debate that had national consequences. 

639. The Status of the Candidates. — Mr. Lincoln had 
served in the Illinois Legislature and one term in 
Congress, but few had heard his name beyond the 
borders of his State, while Mr. Douglas had been for 
twelve years a member of the United States Senate 
and had been a candidate for the Presidential nomi- 
nation in 1856. He was seeking a re-election and 
Lincoln took the field against him as a candidate of 
the Republican party. 

640. A Famous Debate. — Though Douglas was a favor- 
ite in his State, Lincoln had won reputation as an 
orator of great ability, and in the debate that followed 
he proved himself a man of remarkable powers. 
Though Douglas was elected by a small majority, 
Lincoln forced him to make statements about the 
Dred Scott decision that lost him favor in the South 
and ruined his chances for the Presidency. On the 
contrary, Lincoln took so decided a stand against 
slavery extension that his fame spread throughout 
the country and the Republican party came to look 
upon him as one of its loading statesmen. 

641. The Election Campaign of 1860. — Abraham Lin- 
coln was working for higher ends than the Senatorship. 
He knew his powers and the growing strength of his 
party, and when he afterwards spoke in the East men 



1860J BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 323 

were astonished by the depth of thought and power of 
expression of this western orator. As a result, when the 
Repubhean convention met in 1860, Lincoln became its 
choice over all other candidates. Douglas was nomi- 
nated by the moderate section of the Democratic 
party, but the strong pro-slavery section was dis- 
satisfied with the stand he had taken in the debate with 
Lincoln, and nominated a candidate of its own, John 
C. Breckenridge, then Vice President under Buchanan. 

642. Result of the Election. — The break in the Demo- 
cratic ranks assured the election of Lincoln. He won 
by a large electoral majority, while Douglas, though 
he had a large popular vote, received only twelve 
electoral votes. The Republicans thus, in their second 
campaign, had demonstrated their growing power by 
raising their candidate to the Presidency. 

643. The Secession Movement.— When the news of 
Lincoln's election reached the South the effect was 
electrical. Fears of hostile legislation by Congress 
and unjust discrimination by the Executive were 
widely felt, and the South quickly began to take the 
steps which it deemed necessary for the safety of its 
institutions. South Carolina made the first move. 
In a convention held on December 20 an ordinance of 
secession from the Union was passed. Before the end 
of January, 1861, five other States — Georgia, Ala- 
bama, Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana — had fol- 
lowed its example. Texas seceded in February, 
making seven States which had withdrawn from the 
Union. 

644. A Confederate States Government Founded. — On 
the 4th of February delegates from the seceding States 




324 A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1861 

met at Montgomery, Alabama, and organized a new 
government, under the name of the ''Confederate 
States of America." JefTerson Davis, of Mississippi, 
was chosen President, and Alex- 
ander H. Stephens, of Georgia, 
Vice President, these being two 
of the leading statesmen of the 
South. In March a constitution 
was adopted, one of its sections 
forbidding forever any attempt to 
emancipate the slaves. 

645. A Paralyzed Government. — 
jefkerson Davis. While thcse declsivc steps were be- 

ing taken in the South, the govern- 
ment at Washington seemed in a state of paralysis, 
President Buchanan taking no action. Though he did 
not believe in the right of secession, he held that he 
had no right to seek by force to keep any State in the 
Union. Compromises were offered in Congress, a 
peace conference was held in Washington, and other 
measures of conciliation were taken, but they all 
proved of no avail. The whole country waited anx- 
iously for the 4th of March, eager to learn what steps 
the newly elected President would take. 

646. Events in the South. — While the North thus lay 
quiet, the South was active in preparation for coming 
events. Southern leaders left Washington, Southern 
officers resigned from the army, materials of war in 
the South were confiscated, the forts and arsenals in the 
seceding States were seized as Confederate property. 
Only three forts were left in Federal control. Fort 
Sumter, in Charleston harbor, Fort Pickens, at Pensa- 



1861] SUMMARY OF EVENTS 325 

cola, and Key West. Of these, Fort Sumter was 
threatened with bombardment. President Buchanan 
did nothing towards its defence except to send an 
unarmed steamer, the Star of the West, with men and 
suppHes. This was fired on and driven back. Such 
was the state of events when the critical date of March 
4 arrived. 

SUMMARY OF EVENTS 

1848-1852. Congress becomes active in the discussion of the 
question of slavery extension. The Wilmot Proviso seeks to pro- 
hibit the introduction of slavery into the newly acquired territory. 
The Compromise of 1853 fixes the status of slave territory and 
introduces the Fugitive Slave Law. Opposition arises in the 
North to the capture of fugitive slaves. President Taylor dies and 
Fillmore succeeds. Development of the country. 

1852-1856. Douglas introduces the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 
Kansas becomes a seat of conflict between anti- and pro-slavery 
advocates. Charles Sumner is attacked and injured. Organiza- 
tion of the Republican and American parties. Japan is opened to 
United States commerce. The first American World's Fair held. 

1857-1860. The Dred Scott decision and its effect. The John 
Brown raid and its purpose. The panic of 1857. The first ocean 
telegraph laid. The Douglas-Lincoln debate. The 1860 election 
campaign. 

1860-1861. Abraham Lincoln elected by the Republicans. 
South Carolina and the Gulf States secede and form a new gov- 
ernment. The North quiescent, the South active. Fort Sumter is 
threatened with bombardment. President Buchanan's attitude. 

TOPICS FOR REVIEW. 

Oral or written. 
The Conflict of Parties. — The tariff question and nullification — 
the slavery contest — Missouri Compromise and Compromise of 1850 — 
the temperance agitation — Texas and the war with Mexico — new ter- 
ritory acquired — causes of the Civil War. 



PART IX 

THE CIVIL WAR 



1. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION! 
From 1861 to 1865 

647. Lincoln's Policy. — On March 4, 1861, Abraham 
Lincoln was inaugurated President of the United 

States, and in his address on that 
occasion plainly indicated his pol- 
icy, which was to "preserve, pro- 
tect and defend " the Union of the 
States, but not to interfere with 
the institution of slaver}^ where 
it then existed. AVhile he did 
not propose to begin war, he did 
propose to retake the forts and 
other national property which had 
been seized by the Confederacy. 

648. Fort Sumter Bombarded. — For a month, no action 
was taken, the nation continuing in a state of in- 
tense expectancy. Then, on April 8, Lincoln noti- 
fied the Governor of South Carolina that men and 




Abraham Lincoln. 



' Abraham Lincoln was horn in Kentucky in 1809, but Illinois 
was his home during most of his life. His parents were very poor 
and his education was scanty, yet he studied diligently at every 
opportunity, worked at a variety of employments, read law in his 
spare hours, and finally won distinction as a lawyer. He was elected 
to the Legislature in 18-34 and to Congress in 1846, The story of 
his later career is part of the history of the times, 
326 



1S61] 



LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 



327 



provisions would at once be sent to Fort Sumter. 
This was the signal for war. Jefferson Davis/ Presi- 
dent of the Confederacy, sent orders to bombard 
Fort Sumter if it was not at once evacuated. Major 
Anderson, in command of the fort, refused to evac- 
uate, and the guns of the batteries opened upon it. 
For two days this continued; then Anderson, being 




A Battery Directeo Against Fort Sumter. 

nearly out of food and ammunition, gave up the 
contest, leaving the fort April 14, under agreement 
with the besiegers, with his men and his flag. 

^ Jefferson Davis, the President of the Confederate States, was 
born in Kentucky in 1808, and graduated from the West Point 
Military Academy in 1828, afterwards serving in the Indian War. 
He was elected to Congress in 184o, served with distinction in the 
Mexican War, and became a member of the Senate in 1847. Sec- 
retary of State under President Pierce, he was re-elected to the 
Senate in 1857, and remained there until his State seceded. He 
was President of the Confederacy throughout its existence, and 
lived for many years afterwards, dying in 1889. 



328 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1861 



649. The Effect in the North. — This event tiirnod the 
tide. Hitherto the desire for a peaceful settlement 
had widely prevailed in the North. The firing on the 
flag changed the feeling; war-spirit ran high; the 
government was called upon on all sides to avenge 
the insult to the national standard.^ The President 
responded to the public feeling by issuing a call for 



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Harpers Ferry, West Vircinia. 

seventy-five thousand men to serve for three months. 
At that time few foresaw the greatness of the coming 
conflict and it was generally supposed that this number 
would be sufficient. 

650. The Effect in the South. — The war-spirit in the 
South equalled that in the North, thousands has- 

* This had been predicted by Robert Toombs, Da\ns's Secre- 
tary of State, who strongly opposed the firing on Sumter, saying, 
"The firing on that fort will inaugurate a civil war greater than 
any the world has yet seen ... It puts us in the wrong; it is 
fatal." Succeeding events proved the correctness of his opinion. 



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r Pittsburg Landing 




1861] LIN( OLN'S ADMINISTRATION 329 

tening to enlist, while President Davis called for 
privateers to attack the merchant ships of the North. 
Lincoln responded by proclaiming a blockade of the 
Southern coast and announcing that privateers would 
be treated as pirates. A more significant evidence 
of Southern feehng was the secession of four more 
States, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and 
Arkansas, which greatly widened the area of the 
Confederacy. The border States, Maryland, Ken- 
tucky, and Missouri, remained in the Union, though 
efforts were made to carry out the latter two. 

651. Military Movements. — In a week's time the coun- 
try had been carried from a state of peace into a 
state of war. Virginia militia seized the armory at 
Harpers Ferry and the navy-yard at Norfolk, and 
the troops hurrying south to the defence of Wash- 
ington were attacked by Southern sympathizers in 
the streets of Baltimore and blood was shed. This 
first conflict took place on April 19, the anniversary 
of the battle of Lexington. 

652. Strength of the Combatants. — It is well to state 
here something about the comparative strength of the 
two sections thus arrayed in war against each other. 
In men the North was greatly the superior, hav- 
ing twenty-two million inhabitants as compared with 
five and a half millions of whites in the South. The 
North was also much stronger in railroads, manu- 
factures, commerce, and all the elements of wealth, 
and had the advantage in food production. 

653. The State of the South. — Yet the South was 
not devoid of advantages. It possessed an immense 
territory, which offered excellent opportunities for 



330 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1861 



successful defensive warfare. Though it had few 
manufacturing plants, it had taken possession of the 
large supply of government material which lay within 
its borders. As for food, it was easy to divert its soil 
from the culture of cotton and tobacco to that of food 
plants. It had a number of experienced military 
commanders, including several of the ablest soldiers 




COTTOX-PH KIXt 



in the country. Thus, whatever its chances for ulti- 
mate success, it was in a position to wage a long and 
vigorous war. 

654. Missouri and West Virginia.— Some of the most 
important military events of the first year of the war 
had to do with limiting the area of the Confederate 
States. A strong effort was made to carry Missouri 
out of the Union and hard fighting took place in that 
State, in which both sides won battles. The contest 
ended in a triumph for the Unionists. 



1861] LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 331 

In the western part of Virginia there was a similar 
struggle. Here there were few slaves and most of 
the people favored the Union. The fighting was 
severe, but ended in the Confederate troops being 
withdrawn. In the following year a convention of the 
people of that region was held and a State government 
adopted. The new State, under the name of West Vir- 
ginia, was admitted to the Union in 18(33. It was a seri- 
ous loss to Virginia, as it comprised nearly two-fifths of 
its territory and more than one-fourth of its population. 

655. Battle of Bull Run.— The fighting in Missouri 
and West Virginia was done by small forces and 
the first battle of leading importance took place in 
Virginia on July 21, at a place called Bull Run, 
from a small stream near Manassas Junction on the 
railroad running southwest from Washington. General 
Beauregard lay here in a strong position, threatening 
the capital city. He was attacked by a larger force, 
of over thirty thousand men, led by General McDowell. 
Beauregard was in danger of being overwhelmed by 
superior forces when he was reinforced by General 
Johnston, who commanded an army in the Shenan- 
doah Valley. The result was a defeat of McDowell's 
army, which soon became a disorderly flight. Wash- 
ington would have been endangered had Beauregard 
been able to follow up his success, but his troops 
had been sharply handled and were in no condition 
for pursuit. 

An interesting incident of this battle was the wall- 
like firmness with which General Thomas J. Jackson 
held his troops against the Federals, from which he 
gained his famous title of "Stonewall" Jackson. 



332 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1861 




George B. McClellan. 



656. The Effect of the Bull Run Battle.— This Con- 
federate victory filled the South with an enthusiastic 
hopefulness, while their defeat taught the Federals 

that they had taken a false view 
of the situation and that this was 
to be no "ninety days' campaign." 
Congress was roused to action and 
hastened to vote a war appropria- 
tion of five hundred million dollars 
and to call out an army of five 
hundred thousand men, to be en- 
listed for three years. General 
Scott, who had been made Com- 
mander-in-chief, felt himself too 
old to cope with the situation, and withdrew in 
favor of General George B. McClellan, who had won a 
reputation as an able leader in West Virginia. It was 
now evident that a great war was at hand. 

657. Other Events of 1861. — During the remainder 
of the year General McClellan occupied himself in 
thoroughly drilling the army, seeking to make soldiers 
out of the raw material then in the ranks. Along the 
coast the blockade was gradually made effective and 
some important points were occupied. 

Near the end of the year the British steamer Trent, 
from Havana, was stopped by the war-ship San Jacinto, 
and James M. Mason and John Slidell, Confederate 
envoys to Europe, were taken from her. This act was 
applauded in the North, but it brought out a threat 
of war from England and the President ordered that 
the captives should be released. But the tables were 
turned when the British government permitted the 



1862] LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 333 

Alabama, a privateer built in England for the Con- 
federacy, to sail from an English port. The govern- 
ment at Washington stated in significant terms that it 
would not endure any more of this, and after this warn- 
ing no Confederate cruisers were allowed to leave 
British ports. 

658. The Iron=Clad Merrimac. — As above stated, the 
navy-yard at Norfolk had early been seized by Vir- 
ginia troops. Chief among the vessels there was a 
United States frigate, the Merrimac. This had been 
sunk, but it was raised by Norfolk workmen, its deck 
cut down, and a sloping roof built, heavily plated with 
iron. An iron prow was added, for the purpose of 
ramming hostile craft. 

On March 8, 1862, this formidaI)le vessel, the first 
iron-clad ever to be tried in actual war, steamed from 
Norfolk into Hampton Roads, where lay a fleet of 
five of the old type of war-vessels, large and power- 
ful, but, as was soon proved, unfit to cope with this 
new master of the wave. 

659. The Fight in Hampton Roads. — The broadsides of 
the wooden ships-of-war were poured upon their iron- 
clad foe, but glanced off her sides "like so many 
peas." Moving resistlessly on, the Merrimac struck 
the Cumberland with her terrible beak and the frigate 
sank with great part of her crew. The Congress was 
driven ashore and forced to surrender. The coming 
on of night saved the other ships. 

660. Consternation in the North. — The news of this 
momentous event filled the North with consterna- 
tion. Never had there been anything like this be- 
fore. What was to save our ports from this dreadful 



334 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1862 



foe? But Congress was less alarmed, for it had been 
preparing for the coming of the Merrimac and a 
vessel was then on its way to Hampton Roads fitted 
to cope with her. 

661. The Monitor. — Captain Ericsson, a Swedish engi- 
neer and inventor, had been building in New York a 
vessel of a new type. This lay low in the water, 
its flat, iron-clad deck rising just above the sur- 
face. In the centre of this rose a strong revolving 
tower, heavily plated with iron and carrying two very 
heavy guns. So peculiar was the appearance of this 
craft that it was spoken of as ''a cheese-box on a raft. " 




The Monitoh and the Mekuimac. 
(From a Painting by W. F. Halsall, in the Capitol at Washington.) 

662. The First Battle of Iron=Clads.— On the morning 
of March 9 the Merrimac steamed towartls the Min- 
nesota, one of the wooden frigates, but found in its 
path this strange vessel, which had entered the Roads 
during the night. The battle that followed was one 
of giants. The Monitor's huge guns hurled balls that 



IS32J THE WEST IN 1862. 335 

made the Merrimac tremble to her keel, while her balls 
glanced harmlessly from the flat deck and round 
turret of the smaller craft. 

For four hours this strange duel went on, neither 
of the antagonists being seriously harmed. In the 
end the Merrimac withdrew, baffled but not disabled, 
and made her way into Norfolk harbor. She never 
left it again. Repairs were needed, but before these 
were completed the advance of the Union army com- 
pelled the Confederates to abandon Norfolk, and the 
great iron-clad was destroyed. The battle we have 
described was one of momentous significance, for it 
sounded the death knell of the wooden vessel in war- 
fare. Since then the fighting ships of the world have 
worn armor of iron or steel. 

2. THE WEST IN .1862. 

663. Plans for the Campaign. — There had been 
little in the nature of definite design, during the first 
year of the war, but the military authorities at Wash- 
ington entered upon the second year's campaign with 
fixed plans of action. There were four things they 
hoped to accomplish. 

One of these was the capture of Richmond, which 
had been made the capital of the Confederacy. 

A second was the occupation of Kentucky and the 
invasion of Tennessee. 

A third was the opening and control of the Missis- 
sippi, thus cutting off the three Confederate States 
west of that river. 

A fourth was an efficient blockade of the Southern 
ports. 



336 THE CIVIL WAR [1861 

By the end of the year all these but the first had 
been in great part accomplished. 

664. Confederate Occupation of Kentucky. — During 
18G1 two Confederate armies, under Generals Polk 
and Zollicoffer, had invaded Kentucky, Polk taking 
position at Columbus, Zollicoffer in the eastern section 
of the State. The Kentucky Legislature had been so far 
wavering in its action, hoping to keep the State neutral. 
But the invasion of its soil by Confederate armies put 
an end to this indecision, a resolution to remain in 
the Union being at once carried by a large majority. 

665. Buell's Successes. — The Confederate invasion of 
Kentucky was quickly followed by a Federal invasion 
under General Bucll, whose left wing, under General 
Thomas, attacked and defeated Zollicoffer's army at 
Mill Springs in January, its general being killed. 
The fortified post at Bowling Green was evacuated 
before Buell's advance and the Confederate occupa- 
tion of Kentucky in that quarter brought to an end. 

666. Forts Henry and Donelson.— While Polk occu- 
pied a strong position at Colundjus, on the Missis- 
sippi, two Confederate forts had been built on the 
Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, just south of the 
Kentucky boundary. Against these advanced Gen- 
eral Ulysses S. Grant, ^ then in command of the Federal 

' Ulysses S. Grant was born in Ohio in 1822. He became a 
student at West Point and after his graduation served in the 
Mexican war, winning promotion. He then retired to business 
life, in which he was not successful. When the civil war began 
he found it difficult to got an appointment. First becoming Cap- 
tain of a volunteer companj', he was soon promoted Colonel and 
shortly afterwards was made Brigadier General. The capture of 
Fort Donelson made him Major General. The remainder of his 
biography is part of the history of the country. 



1862] THE WEST IN 1862 337 

troops in that section. He was aided by Commander 
Footo, in command of a flotilla of iron-clad gun-boats. 
Foote steamed up the Tennessee, bombarded Fort 
Henry, and captured it before Grant arrived, its gar- 
rison retreating to Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland. 
This was strongly held, and repulsed the fleet after 
a three days' fight. But Grant invested it so closely 
and strongly that escape for the garrison was impos- 




Gux AXD Mortar Boats on the Mississippi. 

sible and after a vigorous effort to break his lines it 
was obliged to surrender, fifteen thousand strong. 

When Grant w^as asked what terms he would give, 
he replied, "No terms except an unconditional and 
immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to 
move immediately upon your works." This answer 
did much to enhance Grant's reputation in the North, 
his admirers saying that his initials "U. S." stood for 
"Unconditional Surrender." 

667. Other Federal Victories. — General Polk was 
very strongly posted at Columbus, but the fall of 

22 



338 



THE CIVIL WAR 



fl862 



Forts Henry and Donelson made his position untenable 
and he was obhged to retire, his men falhng back to 
Island No. 10, a stronghold on the Mississippi. This 
was attacked by General Pope, assisted by Foote's 
squadron of river iron-clads, and after a three weeks' 
bombardment it surrendered, with its garrison of 
seven thousand men. These successes gave the Fed- 
erals full control of Kentucky. 

668. The Invasion of Tennessee. — Though Tennes- 
see had seceded, the mountain district in the east 
was largely Unionist in senti- 
ment. Generals Buell and Grant 
hastened to 
follow up 
their suc- 



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Battle-Fields of Kentucky and Tennessee. 



cesses by invading its central and western sections, 
Buell advancing and occupying Nashville, while Grant 
marched up the Tennessee to Shiloh, or Pittsburg 



1862] THE WEST IN 1862 339 

Landing, near the border line of Mississippi, where he 
awaited the coming of Buell. The Confederates had 
fallen back to Corinth, a railroad centre in the north 
of Mississippi, where a large army was collected, under 
Generals Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard, 
the victor at Bull Run. 

669. The Battle of Shiloh. — Grant's position was a 
dangerous one, his camp being only a short distance 
north of Corinth. This was quickly proved, for he was 
surprised in his camp in the early morning of April 
6, the Confederate army suddenly emerging from the 
woods and falHng on the Federal lines with all the 
Southern dash and vigor. The battle that followed 
raged fiercely for twelve hours, ending at night-fall 
on the river bank, where Grant's retreating regiments 
had the fire of the gun-boats to support them. The 
Confederates had taken three thousand prisoners and 
thirty flags, and had captured the stores in the Federal 
camp, but they had lost their able commander, Gen- 
eral Johnston, one of the most brilhant soldiers in 
the Southern service. 

On the following morning the Confederates renewed 
their attack, hopeful of a complete victory. But 
they found a fresh army to meet them, Buell's men 
having arrived during the night. This gave Grant 
the advantage, and after six hours' desperate fighting 
the Confederates were forced from the field, retiring 
to their intrenchments at Corinth. Thus ended the 
first great battle of the war, in which one hundred 
thousand men were engaged and more than twenty 
thousand fell. Its result was to leave nearly the whole 
of Tennessee under Federal control. 



340 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1862 



670. The Struggle for the Mississippi. — While these 
land movements were taking place a powerful fleet, 
under Commodore Farragut, had entered the Missis- 
sippi, which was strongly defended with forts, fire-rafts, 
and iron-plated river boats. After a vigorous bombard- 
ment, Farragut made a night run past the forts, cleared 
the stream of its other defences, and steamed in tri- 
umph up to New Orleans, which fell into Federal hands. 




Fai;i; 



's Ti 1 IT Passing tiii; Forts on the Mississippi. 



While this was being done, the Union gun-boats on 
the upper river made their way down to Memphis, 
which was seized and the fighting craft collected 
there were destroyed. Thus, with the exception of 
the Confederate posts from Vicksburg to Port Hudson, 
the whole river was in Union hands. 

671. General Bragg's Advance. — As will be seen, dur- 
ing the first half of 1S()2 tlio Union armies and fleets 
had been uniforndy successful in the ^Yest. In the 
late summer a vigorous effort was made by the Con- 



1862] THE WEST IN 1862 341 

federates to regain the lost States. General Bragg, at 
the head of a strong army, left Chattanooga in south- 
east Tennessee and made a rapid march northward to- 
wards Louisville, on the Ohio. Only a hasty move- 
ment by Buell saved this city from capture. Bragg's 
retreating army was attacked and severely dealt with 
at Perry ville on October 3 by a force one hundred 
thousand strong. It continued its retreat unmolested 
during the night. 

672. luka and Corinth. — Meanwhile the Confederate 
stronghold at Corinth had been occupied by a Union 
army under General Rosecrans, and here two severe 
battles were fought, one at luka, in September, and 
one at Corinth on October 3 and 4. The Confederates 
fought with daring bravery, but Rosecrans held his 
own and drove them back with heavy loss. 

673. The Battle of Murfreesboro. — On the last day 
of the year was fought one of its severest battles. 
Bragg, then in winter quarters at Murfreesboro in 
middle Tennessee, was attacked by Rosecrans, who 
had replaced Buell in command. Bragg fought with 
fiery energy, and for a time had the best of the battle, 
but finally was driven back. A second battle, two 
days later, ended in his retreat. In these sanguinary 
contests fell more than twenty thousand men. 

674. Other Events in the West. — We have to record 
further only an unsuccessful expedition sent by Grant 
against Vicksburg, in which General Sherman was 
badly beaten; a battle at Pea Ridge, ArkansaR, won 
by the Union forces; and an outbreak of the Sioux 
Indians in Minnesota and Iowa, in which nearly a 
thousand of the frontier settlers were massacred. 



342 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1862 



3. THE EAST IN 1862. 

675. The Peninsular Campaign. — The military plans 
for 1862 included the capture of Richmond, Virginia, 
and a well-devised but unsuccessful effort was made to 
perform this, General McClellan taking an army south 
by water to the Yorktown peninsula, and General 
McDowell leading a second army over land. The 
fortification at Yorktown detained McClellan for a 




McClellan's Campaign. Yorktown to Richmond. 

month. It was then abandoned and its garrison fell 
back towards Richmond, fighting a battle at Wil- 
liamsburg on the way. 

676. A State of Panic. — Something very like a panic 
existed in Richmond during the rapid advance of 
the Union forces and the ascent of James River by the 
Monitor and other vessels to within a few miles of 
the city. Consternation prevailed and an immediate 
attack might have won the city. But none was made, 



1862] THE EAST IN 1862 343 

McClellan preferring to await the arrival of McDowell, 
who was approaching. 

677. Jackson in the Valley. — The plans of the Union- 
ists were completely overthrown at this juncture 
by the boldness and skill of the Confederate leaders. 
General Joseph E. Johnston, then commander-in- 
chief in Virginia, sent his able subordinate, Stonewall 
Jackson, with a strong force to the Shenandoah 
Valley, with the purpose of alarming the authorities 
at Washington and creating a diversion in tha-c 
direction. 

Jackson's march was rapid and effective. The 
forces then in the Valley were driven back over the 
Potomac. AVashingtdn was in a panic. No one knew 
how many men Jackson had or what was his purpose. 
Fremont, then in West Virginia, was ordered to the 
Valley and McDowell's advance was 
stopped at Fredericksburg and his 
army diverted to the Blue Ridge. 
Jackson, aware of his clanger, hastily 
returned, drove Fremont back at 
Cross Keys, met and defeated a 
part of McDowell's army at Port 
Republic, and then, having bril- 
liantly completed his work and 
prevented McDowell from joining 
McClellan, hastened back to Rich- 
mond, leaving the Federal authorities in dismay. 

678. General Lee in Command. — Meanwhile a severe 
l)ut indecisive battle had been fought at Fair Oaks, 
in the swampy region of the Chickahominy, in which 
General Johnston was severely wounded. A new com- 




344 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 

mancler being needed, General Robert E. Lee/ a man 
who was to gain world-wide fame for military genius, 
was chosen. 

679. The Seven Days' Fight. — Lee lost no time in 
showing his ability. He at once despatched General 
Stuart on a cavalry dash around McClellan's army, 
in which great quantities of supplies were destroyed. 
He then, taking advantage of Jackson's return, made 
an attack in force upon the I^nion army, and for seven 
days the two armies were locked in deadly fray* 
McClcllan was driven back from point to point, losing 
heavily, and slowly drawing in towards the James, 
abandoning his line of supply on York River. On 
July 1 he repulsed Lee at Malvern Jlill, but con- 
tinued his retreat until he had gained a safe position 
on the James. Both sides had lost heavily, McClellan 
about sixteen thousand, Lee about twenty thousand 
men. But the victory rested with Lee, the siege of 
Richmond was raised, and general discouragement 
affected the North. President Lincoln called for three 
hundred thousand fresh troops. 

680, A Second Diversion. — Lee's activity did not 
cease. Feeling that Richmond was for the time safe 
from attack, he sent Jackson north again, this time 



' Robert Edward Lee was born in Virginia in 1807, a son of 
"Light Horse Harry," a famous caA"alry leader of the Revolution. 
Graduating from West Point in 1829, he served in the Mexican 
War, where he was promoted colonel for his courage. At the out- 
break of the Civil War, he entered the service of his State after its 
secession, fought in West Virginia and did engineering work in 
the Carolinas before being made commander of the Army of 
Northern Virginia. After the war he became j^resident of the 
Washington and Lee L^niversity, where he died in 1S70. 



1862] 



THE EAST IN 1862 



345 



against General Pope, the victor at Island No. 10, 
who had been brought from the West and placed in 
command of the forces south of "Washington. This 
movement 
had the de- 
sire d effect, 
General Mc- 
Clellan being 
immediately 
recalled to 
Washington 
to reinforce 
Pope. Lee at 
once marched 
north to the 
aid of Jack- 
son, and the 
seat of war 
was suddenly 
change d to 
the vicinity 
of the national capital. 

681. The Second Battle at Bull 
Run. — The armies met on the old 
Bull Run battle-field and fought 
for three dajF. (August 28-30) over 

this ground, the contest ending in a disastrous defeat of 
the Federal forces. Only the strength of the defences 
of Washington and the arrival of McClellan's advance 
saved the capital from being taken. 

682. Lee Invades Maryland. — Without a day's loss 
of time Lee led his victorious army north into Mary- 




Battle-Fields of Vir- 
ginia, Maryland, and 
Pennsylvania. 



346 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1862 



land, hoping for recruits and possibly to win over 
that State to join the Confederacy. In these hopes 
he was disappointed. But Pennsylvania lay before 
him, and quick action was needed to save that State 
from serious disaster. 

683. The Battle of Antietam. — All the troops at 
hand, about eighty-five thousand in number, were 
placed under McClellan's command, and a rapid pur- 




tSAiTi.K OF Antietam. 



suit began. Lee had little more than fifty thousand 
to meet this powerful force. His route lay west, and 
Stonewall Jackson was sent on a hasty expeciition 
against Harpers Ferr}', where was a Union garrison 
of eleven thousand men. He attacked it with his 
usual vigor, forced it to surrender with its garrison, 
and reached Lee at Antietam on the Potomac just 
in time to take part in the coming struggle. 

McClellan's attack was made on September 17. 
The battle, for the numbers engaged, was one of the 



1862] THE EAST IN 1862 347 

bloodiest in the war, the killed and wounded number- 
ing more than twenty-five thousand men. Neither 
side could claim a victory. Lee's movement north 
was checked, but he made no haste in retiring across 
the Potomac and did so without pursuit. 

684. Burnside in Command. — McClellan's slowness 
in following Lee caused such great dissatisfaction in 
Washington that he was removed from command in 
November and replaced by General Burnside, who 
had shown much ability. Feeling that a battle was 
expected of him, the new commander marched to 
Fredericksburg and there on December 13 attacked 
Lee in strong intrenchments beyond the Rappa- 
hannock. It was a desperate and hopeless attempt, 
the slaughter being frightful and Lee's position too 
strong to be taken. Burnside 's defeat led to his re- 
moval and replacement by General Hooker. 

685. The Proclamation of Emancipation. — The partial 
success at Antietam gave President Lincoln the oppor- 
tunity to perform an act he had for some time con- 
templated. This was to proclaim the freedom of 
the slaves. In a proclamation issued on September 
22, 1862, he announced that on the 1st of January, 
18G3, all the slaves in territory then in arms against 
the Union should be free. He had stated in his inaug- 
ural address that he had no intention to disturb the 
institution of slavery in the South, and that it was 
his sole purpose to preserve the Union. But it was 
evident now that to do this every available measure 
must be taken, the Confederacy having shown great 
power and resources, both defensive and offensive. 
The proclamation of emancipation was therefore 



348 THE CIVIL WAR [1863 

issued as a war measure, on the ground that the slaves 
were an element of strength to the seceding States 
and were being used at home to support the Confed- 
erate cause in the field. 




Signing the Emancipation Proclamation. 

4. TPIE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 

686. The East in 1863.— In 18(33 efforts were made to 
carry forward the plan laid down for 1862. In the East, 
in addition to a number of minor engagements, two 
great battles were fought, the first ending in a victory for 
the Confederate, the second in one for the Union cause. 

687. Battle of Chancellorsville. — General Hooker, who 
had replaced Burnsido after the terrible defeat of 
the latter at Fredericksburg, did not venture a second 
attack on Lee's works, ])ut tried to advance towards 
Richmond by aid of a flank movement. Marching 
up the Rappahannock, he crossed that river some 



1863J THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 349 

distance above the town. But Lee's vigilance was 
not to be evaded. Though he had but forty-five 
thousand to Hooker's ninety thousand men, he boldly 
pursued him, and on May 2 the two armies met in 
a thickly wooded region known as Chancellorsville. 

Here a desperate battle took place. It was decided 
by a well-devised flank movement made by Stonewall 
Jackson, who fell upon and routed the Union right 
wing. The next day Hooker acknowledged defeat by 
recrossing the river. But the Confederate cause suf- 
ered a severe loss in the death of its ablest strategist, 
Stonewall Jackson, who was severely wounded and 
died a few days after the battle. 

688. Lee's Invasion of Pennsylvania. — Lee's great vic- 
tory at Chancellorsville was followed by a brilhant 
and daring movement, an invasion of Pennsylvania, 
by which the cities of Philadelphia, Baltimore and 
Washington were seriously threatened. The advance 
was made rapidly and secretly, by the route of the 
Shenandoah Valley, and only by forced marches was 
the Union army able to protect the imperilled cities. 
During the march General Hooker resigned on account 
of a difference of opinion with the War Department. 
He was succeeded by General George G. Meade. 

689. The Battle of Gettysburg. — Lee's advance reached 
the small town of Gettysburg, in southern Penn- 
sylvania, on the 1st of July. Here it encountered 
a force of Union cavalry, and the fight became severe 
as reinforcements on both sides were hurried up. In 
the end the Federal troops were worsted and driven 
back through the town, taking up a strong position on 
high ground known as Cemetery Ridge. 



350 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1863 



At dawn of the following day Lee had the advan- 
tage in numbers, many of Meade's regiments being 




Plan of the Battle of Gettysburg. 



still a day's march distant. But Meade had much 
the stronger position and every effort to drive him 
from it proved unavailing. On July 3 a desperate 



1863] 



THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 



351 



assault was made on Meade's lines. After two hours 
of severe cannonading, a great corps, fifteen thousand 
strong, under General Pickett, was hurled against the 
Union centre. They were met by a withering volley 
of rifle and cannon shot, against which no human 
power could stand. After frightful slaughter the 
survivors fled and the terrible struggle was at an end. 
On July 4 Lee's retreat began. There was no rapid 
pursuit, and he reached and crossed the Potomac in 
safety. But he had left twenty thousand of his trusted 




Battle of (Uttysburg (by Rothermel). 

veterans on that fatal field, and the battle of Gettysburg 
has since been regarded as the turning point in the war. 

690. The Western Campaign. — The fighting in the 
West during 1863 centred about two vital points, 
Vicksburg, on the Mississippi, and Chattanooga, on 
the upper Tennessee. The first needed to be won 
before the opening of the Mississippi could be com- 
pleted. The second formed a post of vantage for the 
invasion of the Gulf States. 

691. The Movement Against Vicksburg. — Grant's expe- 
dition against Vicksburg in 1862 had ended, as 



352 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1863 



already stated, in Sherman's defeat. A second effort 
was made early in 18G3, but without success. For two 
months Grant sought to reach the city from the north, 
but all his efforts failed. Then he took a bold resolve. 
Cutting loose from his base of supplies, he marched 
down west of the river, sending his gun-boats and 
supply-ships down the stream through a frightful storm 
of shot and shell from the batteries on the heights. 

Crossing the river below the city on April 29, he 
fought five battles in succession with the Confederate 
forces, in all of which he was victorious. Finally, 
General Pemberton having shut himself up with his 

army behind 
strong fortifi- 
cations at 
Vicksburg, 
Grant besieged 
him in that 
city. For six 
weeks the siege 
continued, 
then, on July 
4, lack of food 
compelled 
Pemberton to surrender. In this campaign the Con- 
federate cause lost ten thousand in killed and wounded 
and thirty-seven thousand . in prisoners, with large 
military stores. It was a greater disaster than that 
at Gettysburg. 

A few days later Port Hudson surrendered and the 
Mississippi was open to the Union gun-boats from its 
source to the Gulf, while the three States west of the 
great river were cut off from the Confederacy. 




Grant's Vicksburg Campaign. 



1863] THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 353 

692. Battle of Chickamauga. — From Vicksburg the 
seat of war was now shifted to the east. After the 
battle of Murfreesboro General Bragg had continued to 
hold a strong line in middle Tennessee. From this 
post Rosecrans, by strategic movements, forced him 
to retire in June, 1863, and in September obliged him 
to leave Chattanooga and occupy the field of Chicka- 
mauga, farther south. Here on the 19th Bragg 
attacked the Northern army advancing against him, 
and on the following da}^ drove its right wing in utter 
rout from the field. The left wing was saved from a 
'similar fate by the stubborn tenacity of General 
Thomas, who held his ground until nightfall against 
repeated assaults. 

693. Chattanooga Besieged. — Bragg now seized Look- 
out Mountain and Missionary Ridge, overlooking 
Chattanooga, and held Rosecrans and his army there 
in a state of siege, cutting off supplies until the army 
was suffering from lack of food. Thomas was ap- 
pointed to succeed Rosecrans and held the place as 
stubbornly as he had held the field of Chickamauga, 
awaiting the reinforcements which Sherman was 
bringing him from the west and Hooker from the 
north. Grant was also hastening to the scene, ^ having 
now been made commander-in-chief of all the west- 
ern armies. 

694. Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. — Bragg 
having weakened his army in November by send- 
ing Longstreet to attack the mountain city of Knox- 
ville, Grant took instant advantage of the situ- 
ation. On the 24th Hooker attacked the works on 

* "Hold fast till I arrive," was Grant's telegram to Thomas. 
" We will hold the place till we starve, " came back over the wire. 
23 



354 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1863 




Battle of Lookout Mountain. 



Lookout Mountain, dashing up the steep hill, sweep- 
ing away its weak defences, and taking the position 

with httle loss. On the 
following day Sherman, 
Thomas and Hooker 
joined in an assault in 
force on Missionary 
Ridge, rushing upward 
with such impetuosity 
that the Confederates 
were driven from their 
guns and forced back 
in defeat. The siege of Chattanooga was at an end. 

695. The Siege and Relief of Knoxville. — Grant had 
left Burnside, in command at Knoxville, to defend 
himself against Longstreet until the battling at Chatta- 
nooga was at an end. Then he sent Sherman in hot 
haste to his relief. The place was reached on Decem- 
ber 4. Burnside had been severely pressed, but still 
held his own, and on the appearance of these rein- 
forcements Longstreet raised the siege. 

With these successes the campaigns of 1863 ceased. 
Both in the east and the west the Union cause had won 
a decided advantage. Lee had met with a serious defeat 
at Gettj^sburg, the Mississippi had been opened, and the 
Federal armies had gained at Chattanooga a strong 
location for the invasion of the Gulf and Atlantic 
States. 

5. THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR 

696. Grant in Command. — The L^nion armies had 
at last gained a soldier fitted to try conclusions with 
General Lee. While Lee had shown himself a man 



1864] THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR 355 

of brilliant powers in the east, Grant had swept all 
before him in the west, and his military ability had 
become so evident that on March 3, 1864, he was 
promoted to lieutenant general — a rank previously 
held only by Washington and Scott — and made 
commander-in-chief of all the armies in the field. He 
at once made his headquarters with the army of the 
Potomac and intrusted the movements in the west to 
General Sherman, in whose ability he had the fullest 
confidence. 

697. The Plan of Campaign. — The plan adopted 
was one of continuous forward movement by Meade's 
and Sherman's armies, they to start simultaneously 
and hammer persistently at the weakened Confed- 
eracy until all resistance was overcome. With the 
great resources at the command of the North and the 
failing powers of the South it was felt that such a 
policy, with leaders like Grant and Sherman, could 
scarcely fail of success. They were to find, however, 
that they had no summer day's work before them, and 
that gigantic efforts would be needed to overcome the 
stubborn resistance of the South. 

On the 4th of May, 1864, Grant began his forward 
movement by crossing the Rapidan River, and on 
the same day, seated on a roadside log, he wrote his 
famous telegraph message to Sherman, telhng him 
to begin his march. From that day forward both 
armies were incessantly in the field until the war 
reached its end. 

698. A Series of Battles. — Grant had an army of 
one hundred and twenty thousand men, nearly double 
that of General Lee. But this disparity in numbers 



356 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1S64 



was in a measure equalized by the fact that Lee 
fought in defence, Grant in attack. The two great 
leaders first met in conflict in that wooded region 

known as the "Wil- 
derness, in which 
the battle of Chan- 
ccllorsville had been 
fought a year before. 
For two days the 
armies struggled in 
the woodland depths 
with terrible loss, 
but without victory 
for either. 

Then Grant made 
a flank movement, 
marching to Spott- 
sylvania Court 
House. But swiftly 
as he went, Lee w^as 
there before him, 
and more hard fight- 
ing took place. On 
May 18, unable to 
take Lee's works, 
Grant made another 
flank movement to 
the North Anna 
River. The vigilant Lee was again first on the ground, 
covering the route to Richmond, and a third flanking 
march was needed. This took both armies to Cold 
Harbor, on the Chickahominy River and in the vicinity 




Grant's Campaign. Wilderness to Peters- 
burg 



1S64] THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR 357 

of Richmond. As usual Lcc, having the shorter route, 
was there first, and his earthworks w^ere so strong that 
Grant's effort to take them ended in a frightful slaugh- 
ter of his troops with little Confederate loss. 

699. Petersburg Besieged. — Lee had proved himself a 
veritable stone wall of defence, and Grant, finding that 
his works were impregnable, now crossed the James 
River and attempted to take Petersburg, a railroad 
centre south of Richmond. Here he was again baffled 
by his alert antagonist, and he now began a siege of 
the Confederate works, both sides throwing up in- 
trenchments which in time reached from Petersburg to 
Richmond. 

700. Early's Raid Northward. — Hoping to divert his 
foe to the defence of Washington, Lee now sent 
General Early to the Shenandoah Valley with twenty 
thousand men, to repeat, if possible, Stonewall Jack- 
son's former exploits in that quarter. Early found 
an open road to the Potomac, which he crossed into 
Maryland and marched upon Washington. He met 
and defeated General Lew Wallace, and on July 11 
came within a few miles of the capital city. But 
before he was ready to attack, the forts were strongly 
garrisoned and he was obliged to retreat. 

701. Sheridan's Ride. — General Sheridan, the ablest 
cavalry leader in Grant's army, was now sent to con- 
front Early, and if possible drive him from the valley. 
Sheridan was an abler leader than Early, and de- 
feated him in two engagements. Finally, on October 
19, during Sheridan's absence, Early surprised and 
routed his army, driving it in confusion from the field. 
Sheridan was then at Winchester, twenty miles away, 
on his return from a visit to Washington. 



358 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1864 



Hearing the sound of cannon in the distance, he 
mounted his horse and rode at headlong speed for the 
scene of conflict. Meeting fugitives on the road, he 
halted them with the cheering cry, "Turn, boys, turn; 
we're going back." Reaching the field, he re-formed 
the army, attacked Early's forces, which were plunder- 
ing the captured camp, and repulsed them with great 
slaughter. 

In this month of incessant campaigning Sheridan had 
lost seventeen thousand men. But Early's army was 
almost annihilated, and Sheridan had so thoroughly 
destroyed the supplies in the valley that it could not 
feed an invading army again. 

702. Sherman's Advance. — While these events were 
taking place in the east, Sherman was marching south- 
ward from Chattanooga, with the 
city of Atlanta as his goal. His 
army was about one hundred thou- 
sand strong and was opposed by 
General Joseph E. Johnston with 
fifty thousand men. The campaign 
was somewhat like that of Grant 
and Lee, Sherman attacking Johns- 
ton at five different fortified posts, 
and flanking each of these in suc- 
cession. But he depended upon a 

single railroad for his supplies and had to weaken his 
army to guard this. 

703. Hood Replaces Johnston. — Johnston was shrewdly 
biding his time until his opponent should become weak 
enough to be attacked in the open field. But this cau- 
tious policy did not please the authorities at Richmond, 




William T. Sherman. 



1864] 



THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR 



359 



and at this critical juncture Johnston was removed 
and replaced by Hood, one of the hardest fighters in 
the Confederate army. 

704. Capture of Atlanta. — It proved an injudicious 
act. While Hood justified his reputation by making 
three desperate attacks upon Sherman's army, he was 
repulsed, with heavy 
loss, in each and in the 
end Sherman forced 
him to abandon At- 
lanta by making a 
flanking march around 




Shermax's March, Atlanta to Raleigh. 



it and occupying Hood's line of supplies. On Septem- 
ber 2, he took possession of this city, the most impor- 
tant workshop and arsenal of the Confederate States. 
705. Hood Invades Tennessee. — The loss of Atlanta 
was an almost fatal blow to the cause of the South. 
In an effort to withdraw his antagonist from it Hood 
now made a sudden march into Tennessee, threatening 
his line of communication. But Sherman did not 



360 THE CIVIL WAR [1S64 

pursue. He had other projects in mind and left Ten- 
nessee to take care of itself. 

706. Franklin and Nashville. — General Thomas was 
in command at Nashville, towards which Hood di- 
rected his march. Schofield faced him at Franklin 
and a severe battle took place, in which Hood lost 
over six thousand men. Schofield fell back to Nash- 
ville, to which Hood laid siege. For two weeks Thomas 
la}^ unmoved, the authorities at Washington vainly 
urging him on. Not until he was fully ready did he 
stir, but he then fell upon Hood with all his force. 
The battle lasted two clays, December 15 and 16. 
When it ended Hood's army was destroyed. More 
than fifteen thousand men had fallen on the field 
and the remainder of the force was so utterly disor- 
ganized that it never came together again. 

707. The South Exhausted. — The South was now 
nearly exhausted. Food, clothes and munitions of 
war were growing very scarce, while the dispersal of 
Hood's army had decreased its fighting strength. The 
blockade on the coast was so close that little came in 
from abroad. The Confederacy seemed weakening to 
its fall. Courage and devotion to its cause could not 
save it from the onset of the powerful invading armies 
and the undiminished resources of the North. 

708. Sherman's March through Georgia. — The dis- 
appearance of Hood from his front left Sherman free 
to carry out his plan, which was to march across 
Georgia to the sea, foraging upon the country as he 
went. About the middle of November he left Atlanta 
with his army of sixty thousand veterans, and for a 
month they were lost to sight. Then, in late Decern- 



1S64] 



THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR 



361 



her, they appeared before Savannah, having accom- 
phshed a remarkable march through a hostile terri- 
tory, living on the land, and destroying railroads and 
supplies throughout a belt sixty miles wide. 



-^ 





Sherman's March to the Sea. 

709. Other Events. — There were some other events of 
importance which we must briefly notice. In early 
18G4 an expedition was sent up the Red River under 
General Banks to conc^uer that region. It ended in 
utter failure, Banks being defeated and losing five 
thousand men and large supplies. The project was a 
costly and useless one, as that part of the country 
was already cut off from the seat of war. 

On the coast a more successful expedition took 
place, Admiral Farragut attacking the defences of 
Mobile and capturing them after a severe battle. It 
was on this occasion that he performed his famous 
feat of running through the fire of the forts lashed in 
the rigging of his ship. 

On June 19, 1864, the privateer Alabama, which had 
destroved great numbers of the merchant vessels of 



362 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1S64 



the North, came to the end of its career. Then in the 
harbor of Cherbourg, France, it challenged the Federal 
ship-of-war Kearsarge to fight. The challenge was 
accepted and in the battle that followed the Alabama 
was sunk. 




Farragut Commaxdint. his Flagship ix A< 



710. Fort Fisher Taken. — The war was now fast ap- 
proaching its end, through the exhaustion of one of the 
antagonists. The South had hitherto gained some 
support through the exploits of blockade runners, 
which carried goods in and out from its ports in 
defiance of the utmost efforts of the blockading fleet. 
After the capture of Mobile only one such port re- 
mained open, that of Wilmington, North Carolina, the 
entrance to which was defended by a strong work 
named Fort Fisher. This was attacked by a combined 
land and naval force on Deceml^er 24 and again on 



1865] 



THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR 



363 



January 15, 1865, the latter attack being successful. 
With its fall every port of the Confederacy was closed 
and blockade running at an end. 

711. The Siege of Petersburg. — In Virginia the siege 
of Petersburg continued incessantly, but progress 
against the vigilant defence was very slow. An 
effort was made to take the works by mining under a 
strong Confederate fort. The mine exploded and the 




The Alabama and Kearsarge. 

fort was demohshed on the morning of July 30. But 
the attempted charge through the breach was a disas- 
trous failure, no less than four thousand men being lost 
in this ill-conducted enterprise. But Grant won a suc- 
cess in the capture of the Weldon Railroad, one of 
Lee's chief channels of communication with the South. 
712. Sherman's March North. — In February, 1865, 
Sherman left Savannah and led his victorious battal- 
ions northward through hitherto uninvadcd Con- 
federate territory. His army moved in columns, 



364 THE CIVIL WAR [1865 

covering a belt fifty miles wide. Charleston, which 
for years had defied all attacks, was evacuated on his 
approach and occupied b}' Federal troops, and Colum- 
bia, the capital of South Carolina, was taken and 
burned, the source of the fire being accidental. The 
march continued till Goldsboro, North Carolina, was 
reached. Here Sherman was opposed l)y General 
Johnston, with such forces as he was able to collect, 
and an indecisive battle took place on March 19. 

713. The Fall of Richmond. — The end was now near. 
Lee had not men enough for the proper defence of his 
long line of works, while his source of reinforcements 
and supplies had been largely cut off by Sherman's 
movements. On March 29, 1865, General Sheridan, 
with a large force of infantry and cavalry, swept 
around Lee's right flank to Five Forks, about twelve 
miles west of Petersburg, and carried it by storm on 
April 1, taking five thousand prisoners. 

This placed him in the rear of Richmond, which 
city could no longer be held. An assault was made 
along the whole line on April 2, many forts being 
taken and thousands of prisoners captured, and during 
that night the Confederate government and army left 
the city which had been so long and vigorously held. 
On the morning of the 3d it was occupied by the 
victorious Federal troops. 

714. The Last March of Lee's Army. — Lee's last 
remaining hope was to join Johnston in North Caro- 
lina and prolong the contest by his aid. To prevent 
this junction was now Grant's aim. Marching so 
destitute of food that they were forced to gnaw the 
young shoots of the j^lants for sustenance, Lee's 



1865J 



THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR 



365 



veterans found their line of march cut off by Sheri- 
dan's hard riders, and on reaching Appomattox Court 
House faced an army in front, with another army in 
their rear. Further effort was hopeless, and on the 
9th of April General Lee surrendered his depleted and 
starving army to General Grant. 




The Surrender oj^ CI i,nlk\l Robert E. Lel. 

Thousands had been taken or had deserted in the 
hopeless retreat. Only about twenty-eight thousand 
remained. These were paroled, were supplied with 
food, and the cavalry were allowed to keep their 
horses. Grant generously saying, ''They will need 
them for their spring plowing and other farm work." 

715. The War at an End. — Little remained to do. On 
April 20 Johnston surrendered to Sherman on the 
same terms that had been granted Lee. On May 4 
General Taylor, in Alabama, surrendered the forces 



366 THE CIVIL WAR [1865 

under his command, and soon after the last of the 
armed Confederates gave up the struggle. An inter- 
esting event took place on April 14, five days after 
Lee's surrender, when General Anderson hoisted over 
Fort Sumter the flag which he had pulled down on 
that date four years before. 

Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy, 
with his family and cabinet, fled southward from 
Richmond with a guard of two thousand cavalry. 
But these gradually dispersed as he proceeded, and 
on May 11 he was captured at Irwinsville, Georgia. 
He was imprisoned for two years in Fortress Monroe, 
but was finally set at liberty without a trial. 

716. The Presidential Election of 1864. — During these 
final events of the Civil War the date for another 
Presidential excction came around. Lincoln was again 
the Republican candidate, Andrew Johnson, a War 
Democrat of Tennessee, being nominated for Vice 
President. General McClellan was nominated by the 
Democrats, their platform demanding that hostihties 
should cease, on the ground that the war was a failure 
and the South could not be subdued. Lincoln was 
elected by two hundred and twelve electoral votes to 
twenty-one for McClellan. 

717. The Assassination of Lincoln. — Lincoln survived 
only long enough to see the war, with the conduct of 
which he had been so closely concerned, triumphantly 
ended. His career was brought to an end in a way 
that threw the nation, which had greeted with joy 
the return of peace, into a state of the deepest grief 
and indignation. On the 14th of April, while seated 
in a box at Ford's Theatre in Washington, he was 



1S65] THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR 367 

shot by an actor named John AVilkes Booth, one of a 
party of conspirators who had plotted the death of 
the President and his nearest advisers, another of them 
attempting to kill Mr. Seward, the Secretary of State, 
This act of murderous folly, even more injurious in 
its effects to the South than to the North, was due to 
an insane idea of avenging the wrongs of the South, 
and perhaps with a desire for notoriety. The mur- 
derer was tracked to his hiding place and shot, four of 
his accomplices were hanged, and others imprisoned 
for life. The funeral of the dead President — since then 
acknowledged as the greatest after Washington — took 
place on the 19th of April, 1865, which was observed 
as a day of mourning throughout the land, the 
body being interred at Springfield, Illinois, Lincoln's 
place of residence. 

6. THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR 

718. The Costs ot War. — To meet the costs of this 
great struggle extraordinary efforts were needed on 
the part of the government financiers. Much money 
was obtained by means of the tariff, the rates of 
which were raised until they were nearly three times 
as great as during the Buchanan administration. In 
addition a system of internal taxes was adopted that 
brought in large returns. But it was impossible by 
taxation to meet the enormous expenses of the war, 
and the necessary funds could be obtained only by 
borrowing, the war ending with the nation deeply in 
debt and the paper money of the country worth little 
more than a third of its face value in gold. In the 
South the paper money issued fell in value till it was 



368 THE CIVIL WAR [1863 

almost worthless and the people were put to the 
severest straits to obtain the necessaries of life. The 
total cost of the war, including property destroyed 
and the value of the freed slaves, has been estimated 
at not less than eight billion dollars. When the war 
ended the debt of the government was nearly three 
billion dollars. 

719. The National Bank System. — In 18()3 a law was 
passed establishing a system of national banks, to 
replace the old State banks so long in vogue. The 
notes issued by the new banks were made good by 
bonds deposited in the Treasury at Washington, so 
that no bank failures could lessen their value. This 
system still prevails. 

720. Conscription of Soldiers. — The soldiers. North 
and South, were at first raised by volunteering; but 
as enlistment fell off conscription became necessary. 
The law was not severe, as any person drafted could be 
exempted by hiring a substitute or paying three hun- 
dred dollars for that purpose. Yet the law was strongly 
opposed, and in 1803 a serious draft riot broke out in 
New York, during which many buildings were burned 
and over two million dollars' worth of property de- 
stroyed. The mob gained control of the city and held it 
in terror for several da3's. In the struggle to put them 
down over twelve hundred of the rioters were killed. 

721. The Strength of the Armies. — ^When the war 
ended there were more than one million Union soldiers 
under arms. The total number enlisted was much more 
than this. Probably more than six hundred thousand 
of both armies lost their lives from wounds and dis- 
ease, in addition to the many thousands disabled. 



18651 THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR 369 

There are no statistics to show the numbers in the 
Confederate armies. 

722. The Final Review.— On May 23 and 24 a grand 
review of Grant's and Sherman's armies was held at 
Washington. The column of soldiers was nearly thirty 
miles long and for two days it marched up the broad 
avenue from the Capitol to the White House to the 
sound of martial music and under the tattered flags 
that had waved over so many battle fields. In a few 
weeks after this these war-worn veterans returned to 
their homes and took up again the peaceful duties of 
citizenship, only some fifty thousand of the whole vast 
array being kept under arms. 

723. Tlie Results of the War. — A few words must 
suffice to state the leading results of this long and 
terrible struggle. 

It settled the question of secession. No State is 
likely hereafter to seek to leave the Union. 

It put an end to the institution of slavery and thus 
removed the principal cause of hostility between the 
two sections of the Union. 

It showed the strength of the great repubHc and 
taught Europe that the Union of the States was far 
stronger than foreign statesmen were ready to admit. 

It established the high standing of this country 
among the nations and gave a great object lesson of the 
strength of the principle of republicanism. 

SUMMARY OF EVENTS 

1861. Fort Sumter is bombarded and war begins. Missouri 
and West Virginia are retained in the Union. The battle of Bull 
Run and its effects. The first naval fight of iron-clads and its 
important results. 

24 



370 THE CIVIL WAk 

1862. Plans ot campaign. The invasion of Kentucky and strug- 
gle for its possession. Grant invades and holds western Tennessee. 
Farragut takes New Orleans. Bragg invades Kentucky and is 
defeated at Perry ville and IMurfreesboro. McCk^lan threatens 
Richmond. Jackson's exploits in the Shenandoah \'alley are 
followed by the seven day's fight before Richmond. Lee threatens 
Washington and defeats Pope. Lee enters I\Iaryland and fights a 
battle at Antietam. Disastrous defeat of Burnside at Fredericks- 
burg. Lincoln issues a proclamation freeing the slaves. 

1863. Lee is victorious at Chancellorsville and is defeated at 
Gettysbtu-g. Grant's expedition against Vicksburg successful, 
that city being taken and the Mississippi opened. Rosecrans is 
defeated at Chickamauga and besieged in Chattanooga. The 
siege raised by Grant, Bragg defeated and Knoxville relieved. 

1864. Grant is made commander-in-chief. He fights with Lee 
from the wilderness to Cold Harbor and lays siege to Petersburg. 
Early's raid and his defeat by Sheridan. Sherman fights his way 
to and captures Atlanta. Hood is defeated at Nashville. Sher- 
man marches through Georgia, and takes Savannah. The Kear- 
sarge sinks the Alabama. Farragut takes Mobile. 

1865. Fort Fisher is taken. Sherman marches north and 
occupies Charleston and Columbia. The Petersburg works taken 
and Richmond evacuated. Lee's army pursued and forced to 
surrender and the war ends. Lincoln re-elected in 1864 and assas- 
sinated in 1865. The cost of the war. Conscription of soldiers 
and numbers in the field. The results of the war. 

TOPICS FOR REVIEW. 

Oral or written. 
Slavery in America. — Beginning — extension to all Colonies — 
early feelings against it — effects upon political parties — fugitive slave 
law — Dred-Scott Decision — Kansas-Nebraska Bill — John Brown's raid 
— secession — emancipation of slaves. 

The Civil War. — Election of Lincoln and its result — secession -of 
States — campaigns — important battles — principal leaders — duration — 
what the war settled. 

REFERENCE BOOKS. 

1. Blaine's Twenty Years of Congress. 2. Swinton's Decisive Battles 
of the War. 3. Wilson's Division and Reunion. 4. Qretiey's American 
Conflict 5. Grant's Memoirs 



PART X 

i'ROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION 



1. JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION* 

Prom the Death of Lincoln to 1869 

724. Character of the New President. — On April 15, 
1865, three hours after the death of Abraham Lincoln, 
the Vice President, Andrew Johnson, quietly assumed 
the duties of the office. A man of positive convictions 
and strong will, he adopted a course which was cer- 
tain to bring him into collision with Congress, which 
did not view kindly his usurpation of its powers in the 
establishment of new relations with the States of the 
South. 

725. State Governments Organized. — Without call- 
ing Congress into extra session to deal with the ques- 
tions sure to arise, President Johnson proceeded to 
dispose of them in his own way. On May 29 he issued 

^ Andrew Johnson was born in North Carolina in 1808, the son 
of a poor family. Apprenticed early to a tailor, he had little 
opportunity for education, not learning to write until after his 
marriage. Yet he was able and active, entered the political field 
and held several State offices. He was elected to Congress in 1843, 
and afterwards reached the dignity of Governor of Tennessee and 
United States Senator. While an ardent Democrat, he strongly 
opposed the secession of Tennessee, and in 1862 was made Military 
Governor of that State. His activity in this position won him the 
nomination for the Vice Presidency. After the end of his Presi- 
dential term he entered political life again and was elected to the 
Senate in 1875, but died during that year. 

a7i 



372 



PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION 



[1865 




Andrew Johnson. 



a proclamation of pardon to the people of these States, 
on condition that they would swear to "faithfully 
support, protect, and defend the Constitution and the 
Union." As a result four of the late 
seceded States, Virginia, Tennessee, 
Arkansas and Louisiana, organized 
loyal State governments, which were 
recognized by the President, who au- 
thorized the other States to call con- 
ventions for the same purpose. When 
this was done the President consid- 
ered that nothing further was needed 
and that the late seceded States were 
again full members of the Union. 

726. The Thirteenth Amendment. — One important 
step taken by the reorganized States was to ratify 
an amendment to the Constitution passed by Con- 
gress in February, 18G5, while the war was still in 
progress. This abolished slavery within the Union, 
thus completing the work of Lincoln's Emancipation 
Proclamation. It was adopted by the reciuisite three- 
fourths of the States during the year and became a 
law on December 15, 1865. This amendment put 
a constitutional end to slavery within the limits of the 
United States, removing forever the instigating cause 
of dissension and hostile relations between the two 
great sections of the country. 

727. Congress in Session. — When Congress again 
came together in December, 1865, it was evident that 
many of the members looked upon the late acts of the 
Executive as illegal usurpations of power, and it was 
not long before dissensions between the two branches 



1866] JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION 373 

of the government appeared. The new governments in 
the South, finding that the recently emancipated 
negroes were httle disposed to work, had passed laws 
with severe penalties to compel them to do so. Con- 
gress looked upon this as a movement towards a state 
of practical slavery and organized a Freedman's Bu- 
reau for the protection of the recent slaves. It went 
further than this when it passed a Civil Rights Bill, 
which gave the freedmen all the rights of American 
citizens except the right to vote. It also prohibited 
any Southerner from holding office unless he took an 
oath that he had taken no part in secession. 

728. The Fourteenth Amendment. — The terms of the 
Civil Rights Bill were made a part of the organic law 
of the country by a new amendment to the Con- 
stitution passed in 1866, and ratified by the requisite 
number of States by 1868. This declared that no 
State should deprive any citizen of his rights; that all 
who had sworn to defend the Constitution and had 
taken up arms against it should be ineligible to oflEice 
(unless made eligible by Act of Congress) ; that the 
United States debt should be valid, but no debt in- 
curred by insurrectionists should be paid; and that 
the basis of representation in any State should be 
dependent upon the number of male citizens permitted 
to vote. 

729. Acts of Reconstruction. — What Congress might 
have done regarding the reconstruction of the seceded 
States but for the precipitate action of the President 
it is now impossible to say. As it was, a strong feel- 
ing of irritation existed in that body, the hastily 
formed States w^ere not recognized, and various meas- 



374 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1868 

ures of conditional reconstruction were passed, all of 
which were vetoed by the President and all passed 
over his veto. Military governments were appointed 
for each State except Tennessee (which was admitted 
to the Union). These were to continue in office until 
new State conventions had been called, chosen by 
voters without regard to race or color, except that no 
Confederate leader could vote or be voted for. 

730. States Readmitted. — Under this law the States 
of Alabama, Louisiana, North Carolina, South Carohna, 
Arkansas and Florida were admitted to the Union 
and sent representatives to Congress in June, 1808. 
The remaining four States refused to accede to the 
law and remained under military rule. 

731. Carpet=Bag Governments. — In the new govern- 
ments the more intelligent of the people were kept 
out of office, as few of them could take the ''iron-clad 
oath" that they had taken no part in secession. Of 
those privileged to vote, the freed slaves were in a 
majority in several of the States, and their ignorance 
of political matters led to an unfortunate state of 
affairs. Adventurers from the North — called ''carpet- 
baggers" from the satirical saying that a carpet-bag 
would hold all their possessions — sohcited the negro 
vote and were elected to office. Many of the late 
slaves were sent to the State legislatures. The result 
was calamitous, the public funds were squandered or 
stolen, and the States involved nearly ruined. 

732. The Tenure of Office Act. — The measure which 
led to a final breach between the President and Congress 
was the Tenure of Office Act, which forbade the Presi- 
dent to remove from office certain officials, including 



1868] JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION 375 

the Cabinet officers, without the consent of the Senate. 
Disregarding this, Johnson asked Edwin M. Stanton, 
Secretary of War, to resign, and when he decUned 
removed him and appointed another man in his place. 

733. The President Impeached. — When Congress met 
in December, 1867, the Senate refused to confirm the 
President's action and Stanton resumed his post. 
Johnson thereupon directed Thomas, the successor 
appointed by him, to perform the duties of the office. 
To set aside an Act of Congress in this way was a 
grave offense and led the House to as grave a decision. 
This was to impeach the President fo*r high crimes and 
misdemeanors. 

So serious an accusation had never before been 
brought against a President of the United States. If 
sustained it would dismiss him from office in disgrace. 
The Senate sat as a high court of impeachment from 
March 5 to May 16, 1868, Chief Justice Chase, of the 
Supreme Court, presiding. The trial ended in the 
acquittal of the President, the vote in favor of im- 
peachment, when taken, being one less than the two- 
thirds necessary for conviction. 

734. A Proclamation of Amnesty. — President Johnson 
had now less than a year to serve and there was little 
more friction. His chief new act of importance was a 
proclamation, issued on Christmas Day, 1868, granting 
''full pardon and amnesty" to those who had taken 
part in the attempt to destroy the Union. This did 
not restore their political rights, since this could be 
done only by Congress. 

735. The Invasion of Mexico. — During Johnson's 
term several other matters of importance took place, 



376 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1865-67 

which may be briefly mentioned. Napoleon III., 
Emperor of France, had taken advantage cf the United 
States being involved in a civil war to invade Mexico, 
on pretext of collecting a debt. He proceeded to found 
an empire there, selecting as emperor Maximilian, 
an Austrian archduke. The American government 
bore this infraction of the Monroe Doctrine as quietly 
as possible until the war ended. Then, in I8G0, Napo- 
leon was sternly bidden to remove his army. He 
finally did so, after much hesitation, but Maximihan 
remained. As a result the republicans of Mexico rose 
against him, defeated his army, and shot him as an 
unauthorized invader. With his fall the empire 
ended and the republic was re-established. 

736. Purchase of Alaska. — In 1807 Russia offered to 
sell her territory on this continent, known as Russian 
America, to the United States, for the sum of seven 
milhon two hundred thousand dollars. The offer was 
accepted and this territory, since known as Alaska, 
has been a source of wealth many times repaying its 
original cost. 

737. The Atlantic Telegraph. — Cyrus ^Y. Field, who had 
failed in his effort to lay a successful ocean telegraph in 
1858, sought to lay another in 1865, but it broke in 
mid-ocean and sank to the bottom. Mr. Field was not 
dismayed, but formed a new company and had a new 
cable made, which was laid in 1866. Then the cable of 
1865 was raised by means of grappling irons and its 
broken ends spliced. Both cables worked admirably, 
and since that date there has been continuous tele- 
graphic communication with Europe. 

738. The Election of 1868.— In the Presidential clec- 



i86S] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 377 

tion of 1868 General Ulysses S. Grant was chosen 
as the Republican candidate, Horatio Seymour, late 
governor of New York, being the Democratic nom- 
inee. As might have been expected, General Grant 
was elected by a large majority, Seymour receiving 
only eighty out of two hundred and nincty-four 
electoral votes. 

2. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 

From 1869 to 1877 

739. Reorganization Completed. — Under President 
Grant the controversy existing between the executive 
and legislative branches of the gov- 
ernment came to an end and the 
work of reorganizing the seceded 
States was completed. The chief 
measure in this direction was the 
passage of a new amendment to the 
Constitution, known as the Fifteenth 
Amendment, confirming to negroes 
the right to vote which they had of 
late enjoyed. It declared that the ,- ^ ^ 

J .^ L L\ss,L-i >. Grant. 

right to vote should not be denied 
in this country "on account of race, color, or previous 
condition of servitude." This was adopted in 1870, the 
four States still out of the Union — Virginia, Georgia, 
Mississippi and Texas — being required to vote for it 
and the other recent amendments as a condition of 
readmission. This was done, and the restoration of the 
Union was completed in 1870. During the decade four 
new States had been admitted, Kansas in 1861, West 
Virginia in 1863, Nevada in 1864 and Nebraska in 1867. 




378 



PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION 



[1869-72 



740. The Alabama Claims. — The restoration of the 
Union was quickly followed by a demand upon Great 
Britain for redress for the injury inflicted upon Amer- 
ican commerce by the privateer Alabama, which had 
been built in England and sailed from an English 
port. This was referred to arbitration and settled in 
favor of the United States in 1872,. Great Britain being 
required to pay damages in the sum of fifteen million 
five hundred thousand dollars. This is known as the 
"Geneva Award," and is famous as a peaceful settle- 
ment of an international question which might easily 
have led to war. 

741. A Transcontinental Railroad. — During the period 
with which we have been dealino; railroad.'^ had been ex- 





Medal Issued by Congress upon Complftion of the Union Pacific I?ailroad. 



tended largely in this country, and Grant's first term 
was signahzed by a notable event of this kind, the 
completion of the first railroad to the Pacific coast, the 
last spike of the pioneer transcontinental line being 
driven May 10, 18(39. This completed a line extending 
from New York to San Francisco, three thousand 
three hundred miles long, the longest railroad then in 



1870-72] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 379 

existence. To-day a number of such roads cross the 
continent and a traveler can go from the Atlantic to 
the Pacific in less than five days' time. 

742. The Chicago Fire. — In 1871 took place the 
greatest conflagration ever known in this country, the 
terrible fire which almost destroyed the great city of 
Chicago. Fanned by a high wind, this fire swept 
through that city of wooden houses with railroad speed, 
more than three square miles being burned over and 
two hundred million dollars' worth of property de' 
stroyed. It was followed about a year later by a de- 
structive fire in Boston, which caused a loss of eighty 
million dollars. The burned districts were rapidly 
rebuilt, more strongly and handsomely than before. 

743. The Weather Bureau. — In 1870 was estabhshed 
the Weather Bureau, for the purpose of making and 
publishing accurate observations on the state of the 
weather. This has been of the utmost service to the 
agricultural and commercial interests of the country, 
in advising the people of the approach of storms, 
change of temperature, etc. At first connected with 
the Signal Service of the army, it has been a Bureau 
of the Agricultural Department since 1891. 

744. Congressional Corruption. — In 1872 charges were 
brought against certain members of Congress of 
having received presents of stock in the Credit Mobiher 
Company, organized for the construction of the Union 
Pacific Railroad. For this stock they were to use 
their influence in its favor. A great abuse of the 
franking privilege, by which Congressmen and officials 
could send mail matter free, was also charged, and this 
abuse was brought to an end, an allowance for postage 
being made to each Congressman. 



380 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1872-76 

In 1873 a bill was passed which raised the salaries 
of the President, Congressmen and many government 
officials. To this no objection would have been made 
if they had not caused this increase of salary to date 
from 1871, thus adding to their pay for former work. 
This raised such a storm of disapproval that the 
"Salary-grab Bill," as it was called, was repealed by 
Congress at its next session. 

745. The Election of 1872.— In 1872 President Grant 
was renominated by the Republican party, while a 
new party under the name of Liberal Republicans, 
which advocated civil service reform, nominated Horace 
Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune. The Demo- 
cratic party accepted Greeley as its candidate, though 
he had beer its active opponent, but he obtained only 
forty-seven electoral votes. There were several other 
candidates, but Grant was chosen by a large majority. 
Greeley died before the electoral votes were cast. 

746. The Panic of /873. — The four years of Grant's 
first term were years of prosperity, but the active 
speculative movement chat had set in, largely in the 
direction of very rapid railroad building, led to a 
sudden change in 1873. In October a prominent 
banking house in Philadelphia, which had been sup- 
porting the building of the Northern Pacific Railroad, 
closed its doors, and failures in all directions followed. 
Factories ceased operations, banks failed to meet 
their obligations, and a severe and widespread panic 
began, its effects not fully passing away for six years. 

747. The Centennial Celebration. — During this period 
of business depression came the 4th of July, 1870, 
the centennial anniversary of the signing of the Decla- 



1876] 



GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 



381 



ration of Independence. It was celebrated by a great 
World's Fair, held at Philadelphia, the city in which 
the Declaration was signed. The exhibition was one 
of unsurpassed extent and beauty, the Main Hall 
alone covering twenty acres, while there were many 
other large buildings, filled with objects of art and 
industry. In art objects Europe far surpassed this 
countr}", and in this direction the exhibition had a 
great educational value. In the results of inventive 
genius the United States was unsurpassed. The most 
striking invention displayed was the telephone, then 
first exhibited. 




Custer's Fight with thk Sioux Indians. 



748. Indian Troubles. — Indian troubles arose in the 
West during Grant's administration, as a result of 
attempts to remove the Indians from their old hunt- 



382 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1876 

ing grounds. One war broke out in 1872, when it was 
sought to move the Modoc Indians of Oregon to a new 
reservation. They refused to go and retired to a 
region difficult to reach known as the "Lava Beds," 
where for a year they resisted the troops. The few of 
them who remained at the end of this time were sent 
to Indian Territory. 

749. The Sioux War. — The Sioux Indians occupied 
the Black Hills of Dakota. Gold being found in this 
region, the whites sought to take possession of it, 
but they were fiercely resisted by the Indians, under 
their warlike chief. Sitting Bull. The hostilities that 
followed led to a tragic incident. General Custer, a 
daring cavalry leader of the Civil War, attacked a 
large camp of the Indians on the Little Big Horn 
River with a much smaller force. The result was that 
he and his entire regiment were slaughtered by the 
savages. In the end Sitting Bull and his followers 
fled to Canada. 

750. Colorado Admitted. — The State of Colorado was 
admitted in 187G, from which fact it is known as the 
"Centennial State." Though in a mountain district, 
largely barren, its rich mines of silver and other 
minerals gave it a rapid growth. More recently gold 
was found in abundance, and it has now a yield of 
gold double that of any other State. 

751. The Election of 1876.— The Presidential elec- 
tion of 1876 led to a period of excitement without 
parallel in any other election. The candidates of the 
leading parties were Rutherford B. Hayes, Republi- 
can, and Samuel J. Tilden, Democratic nominee. 
When the vote was counted it was found to be very 



1877] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 383 

close, the decision resting on the States of Florida and 
Louisiana. In these the largest number of votes were 
cast for the Democratic ticket. But the Returning 
Boards of those States, from whose decision there was 
no appeal, refused to count the votes of certain dis- 
tricts, saying that errors invalidated the returns. 
In consequence thc}^ claimed that the Republican 
ticket was elected. South CaroHna was also claimed by 
both parties. 

752. The Electoral Commission. — The Democrats of 
the country declared that Tilden had been elected and 
that the Returning Boards had illegally deprived them 
of their rights. The electoral vote being thus disputed, 
the case came before Congress for settlement, but the 
House had a Democratic and the Senate a Republican 
majority, and no agreement could be reached. In the 
end it was decided to refer the matter to an Electoral 
Commission, composed of five Representatives, five 
Senators, and five Judges of the Supreme Court. Of 
these fifteen seven were Democrats, seven Republicans, 
and one, Judge Davis, an independent in politics. 

Before the court sat Judge Davis was elected to 
the Senate and resigned from the Supreme Court, 
being replaced by a Republican judge. This gave the 
Republicans a majority and they voted to accept the 
decision of the Returning Boards, the result being 
that Hayes won the Presidency by a majority of one 
electoral vote. He was declared elected on the morn- 
ing of March 3. Thus ended a case that at one time 
almost threatened to lead to civil war, and for years 
afterwards caused bitter feelings. 




384 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1877 

3. HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION » 

From 1877 to 1881 

753. Military Rule Ends in the South.— Though the 
Democratic party had opposed the election of Presi- 
dent Hayes, he adopted, in regard to 
Southern affairs, the pohcy they ad- 
vocated and one which was severely 
condemned by many Republicans. 
This was, to put an end to the mili- 
tary rule which had been maintained 
in much of the South since the war, 
and leave to the people of that sec- 
tion the full control of their own 

Rutherford b. hayks. ^ffairs; As a rcsult thc ucgro domi- 
nance in the Legislatures of the 
South came to an end. This policy was approved by 
the great mass of the people, as it put an end to the 
political strife which had long prevailed. 

754. Specie Payments Resumed. — President Hayes 
also advocated civil service reform, or the removal of 
office-holding from the control of political leaders, and 
the early resumption of specie payments. During 
the war gold had disappeared from circulation, and 
had increased in value till at one time a dollar in gold 
was worth nea'rly three dollars in paper. This differ- 
ence in value gradually grew less, and in 1875 Con- 

1 Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Ohio in 1822. He studied 
at the Harvard Law School and was admitted to the bar in 1845. 
In the Civil War he served as major in the twenty-third Ohio regi- 
ment and rose to the grade of brigadier-general. He was elected 
to Congress in 1865, and was Governor of Ohio for three terms. 
After his Presidential term he lived in retirement until his death, 
which occurred in 1893 



1873-1900] HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION 385 

gress passed a bill providing that on and after January 
1, 1879, the United States should redeem its paper 
money in coin. This announcement sufficed. When 
the time came few people asked for gold in exchange 
for their paper. Since that day the paper money of 
this country has been worth its face value in gold 
and the credit of the government has so increased 
that it can now obtain all the money it needs to borrow 
at low rates of interest. 

755. Silver Coinage. — Up to 1873 only about eight 
million silver dollars had been coined in the United 
States. By a law passed in that year the coinage of 
silver dollars was stopped. But the finding of new 
and rich mines of silver led to an opposite law in 1878, 
providing that not less than two or more than four 
million silver dollars should be coined every month. 
This law continued in force until 1890, wdien a law was 
passed providing for a still larger coinage of silver. 
This law was repealed in 1893 and since then no silver 
bullion has been bought for coining into money. In 
1900 Congress passed a law making gold the sole 
standard money of this country, and the gold dollar 
the money unit. In consequence the market value of 
silver fell till the bullion value of a silver dollar was 
for a time less than fifty cents. 

756. Railroad and Coal Strikes. — The first 3 ear of the 
Hayes administration was notable for several great 
strikes of working-men, the result of decrease in wages 
arising from the business depression. The strike of 
the railroad men was the most threatening and costly 
one ever known in this country. It spread widely 
through the Northern States and for two weeks there 

25 



386 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1880 

was very little movement of trains, as no engineers 
or other workmen were to be had. 

The worst of the strike was in Pennsylvania, where 
it was joined by a great army of coal miners. Riots 
broke out, the worst of them being in Pittsburg. There 
a large number of freight cars were plundered and 
burned, railroad buildings set on fire, and the militia 
sent to suppress the riots were attacked by the mob. 
This outbreak did not end until more than three mil- 
lion dollars' worth of property was destroyed and 
nearly one hundred lives were lost. 

757. Yellow Fever in the South.— In 1877 and 1878 
a terrible epidemic of yellow fever broke out in por- 
tions of the South, causing a large number of deaths. 
Its worst centres were in New Orleans and Memphis, 
where little heed had been paid to sanitary laws. In 
1878 more than fifteen thousand persons died, victims 
of this dread epidemic. Since that time new sanitary 
laws have been passed in these cities and they have 
become more healthful. It has also been discovered 
that a certain species of mosquito carries the germ of 
yellow fever and that by destroying these insects or 
preventing their attacks this fatal disease can be 
done away with, so that now yellow fever has disap- 
peared in some regions where it was formerly very 
destructive to human life. 

758. The Election of 1880.— In the Presidential elec- 
tion of 1880 James A. Garfield, a distinguished states- 
man, and Chester A. Arthur were the Republican 
candidates. The Democrats nominated Winfield S. 
Hancock, a leading general of the Civil War, and 
William H. English. The Republican candidates won 
in the election by a majority of fifty-nine electoral votes. 



1881] GARFIELD AND ARTHUR ADMINISTRATION 387 




James A. Garfield. 



4. THE GARFIELD' AND ARTHURS ADMINISTRATION 

From 1881 to 1885 

759. The Reform Sentiment.— The feeling in favor 
of a reform in the methods of appointment to office, 
on the basis of merit instead of 
pohtical service, had been growing 
for years and it found strong sup- 
port in the new President. As 
usual, he was beset by apphcants 
for office, usually supported by 
members of Congress, and when 
he refused to appoint a collector 
of the port of New York, supported 
by the Senators of that State, they 
both angrily resigned their seats. 

760. Assassination of the President. — This action 
caused an excitement throughout the country, and 
especially among the office-seekers, a state of affairs 
that led to the murder of the President. On the 2nd 
of July, 1881, while President Garfield was standing 

^ James Abram Garfield was born in Ohio in 1831. His parents 
were poor but he succeeded in gaining entry to Williams College, 
where he was graduated in 1854. He entered the army as colonel, 
in 1861, was made major general in 1863, and soon after was elected 
to Congress, where he became prominent as an able statesman. 
He was elected United States Senator in 1880, but before taking his 
seat was elected President. 

^ Chester Alan Arthur was born in Vermont in 1830, graduated 
at Union College, became a teacher and then a lawyer and was 
quartermaster-general of New York State during the war. Ap- 
pointed collector of the port of New York in 1872 he served six 
years. Having served as Vice President and President, he unsuc- 
cessfully sought a renomination in 1884. He died in 1886. 



388 



PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION 



[1883 



in the railroad station at Washington, he was shot by 
a disappointed apphcant for office named Guiteau. 
The wound proved fatal. After lingering in suffering for 
many weeks, the sympathy of the people warmh* drawn 
towards the patient sufferer, he died on the 19th of 
September, after a term of office of a little more than 
six months. Vice President Arthur succeeded him. 

761. Civil Service Reform. — The dastardly assassi- 
nation of Garfield greatly hastened the reform in which 
he had been so strongly interested, Congress in 1883 

passing a Civil Service Act. This 
was intended to take the appoint- 
ment to office out of the President's 
hands, a Board of Commissioners 
being appointed to examine candi- 
(hites and give offices to those who 
passed highest. At first only a few 
of the offices were brought under the 
new law, but it has been extended 
until it now covers nearly all posi- 
tions in the gift of the government, 

and the old "spoils system," introduced by President 

Jackson, is practically at an end. 

762. Arthur as President. — Vice President Arthur 
had been nominated for political reasons, and was 
looked upon as a man unfitted for the high office of 
President. But he had much more abihty than he 
was given credit for, and filled the responsible posi- 
tion which came to him so unexpectedly to the satis- 
faction of the people. 

763. Industrial Exhibitions. — During Arthur's term 
of office the progress of the South was shown by several 
interesting industrial exhibitions which were held in 




Chestkk a. Arthor. 



1884] GARFIELD AND ARTHUR ADMINISTRATION 389 



that section, at Atlanta in 1881., at Louisville in 1883, 
and, on a much larger scale, at New Orleans in 1884. 
That at New Orleans was named "The World's Indus- 
trial and Cotton Centennial Exposition," and demon- 
strated the great progress the South had made since 
the war. In 1774 the South had exported eight bags 
— about equal to one bale — of cotton. In 1884 its 
export amounted to eight million bales, and its 
manufacturing industries had also shown a remark- 
able increase. As late as 1860 there were scarcely 
any manufactures south of Maryland. In 1884 there 

were millions of dollars r — - — 1 

invested in manufac- ^ I 

tures in the South. . i 

Since that date they j 

have grown to hun- 
dreds of millions of 
dollars. 

764. The Washington 
Monument. — Another j 

interesting event of 
this period was the 
completion of the 
great Washington 
Monument at the 
national capital. This 
was projected shortly 
after the death of Washington, but the corner-stone 
was not laid until 1848, and the work not finished 
until 1885. It is an immense obelisk of white marble, 
five hundred and fifty-five feet high, and contains in 
its interior stones carved with appropriate designs 
contributed by the several states. 




The Washington Monument. 



390 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1884 

To this achievement may be added another triumph 
of engineering which took place during Arthur's term. 
This was the completion and opening to travel of the 
great bridge over the East River betw^een New York 
and Brooklyn, the longest and most notable suspen- 
sion bridge existing at that time in the world. It was 
designed in 1869 by John A. Roebling, the builder of 
the first suspension bridge across the Niagara River 
at the Falls. 

765. Standard Time. — Another event of importance 
was the adoption of what is known as standard time. 
In 1883 the area of the United States was divided 
from east to west into four sections, the same time to 
be used in all parts of each section, while the time 
would vary by one hour between two adjoining sec- 
tions. Thus w^hen it is twelve o'clock in New York 
it is eleven in Chicago, ten in Denver, and nine in San 
Francisco. This system is of great use in railroad 
travel, as time-pieces can be readily changed to suit 
the standard time in each section. 

766. The Election of 1884. — In the Presidential elec- 
tion of 1884 Grover Cleveland, Governor of New York, 
became the candidate of the Democratic party, James 
G. Blaine, a prominent statesman, of the Repubhcan 
party. The election was very close, the result depend- 
ing on the vote of New York, which w^nt for Cleve- 
land by a few hundred majority. Blaine's cause was 
greatly injured by the extravagant attacks of some of 
his supporters upon the Democratic party. In this 
respect the election was much Hke that of 1844, when 
Clay w^as similarly defeated by a small majority against 
him in New^ York. 




1888] CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION 391 

5. CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION i 
From 1885 to 1889 

767. The Interstate Commerce Act. — The most im- 
portant legislative act passed during the Cleveland 
administration was that known as 
the Interstate Commerce Act, 
enacted in 1887. Its purpose was 
the control of railroad traffic be- 
tween the States. A commission of 
five persons was appointed to over- 
see the execution of the law. It has 
been much employed in recent times 
against the great raih-oad corpora- 
tions, which have been accused and ^.^ „ „ r-, ,.„. ...^ 

' Grovee Cleveland. 

at times convicted of illegal acts. 

768. The Chinese Exclusion Act. — Another impor- 
tant law was that passed in 1888 to prevent Chinese 
laborers from entering this country. They were com- 
ing here in large numbers, and were regarded with 
great hostility by the working classes, especially in 
California, where they were accused of working for 
ruinously low wages and being for other reasons unde- 
sirable. The law is still in effect, and the number of 

^ Grover Cleveland was born in New Jersey in 18.37. His father 
dying and leaving him penniless, he studied law in Buffalo and was 
admitted to the bar in 1859. He began his political career in 1863 
as successively assistant district attorney, sheriff, and mayor of 
Buffalo, and won so high a reputation for integrity in office that he 
received in 1882 the Democratic nomination for governor of New 
York. He was elected by a large majority and his increasing repu- 
tation for unswerving honesty won him the Presidential nomination 
in 1884. He died in 1908. 



392 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1886 

Chinese in this country is decreasing, as many have 
returned home and others cannot come, except by 
illegal methods, to replace them. 

769. Important Events of 1886.— The lack of satisfac- 
tory provision for a successor to the Presidency in case 
of the death of both President and Vice President, led 
to legislation by Congress in 188G fixing the succession 
in the following order: 1, Secretary of State; 2, Secre- 
tary of the Treasury; 3, Secretary of War; 4, Attorney 
General; 5, Postmaster General; G, Secretary of the 
Navy; 7, Secretary of the Interior. 

The possibility of such a disaster was shown by the 
assassination of Presidents Lincoln and Garfield and by 
an occurrence in Chicago in 1886. During a strike of 
workingmen in that city, mostly foreigners, a meeting 
was held in wdiich the speakers used such violent lan- 
guage that the police attempted to disperse the riotous 
assemblage. While doing so, a dynamite bomb was 
thrown in their midst, killing several and wounding 
many of the officers. The ringler.ders of the mob were 
convicted of complicity in the outrage. Four of them 
were hanged and the others imprisoned for life. 

770. The Charleston Earthquake.— The most destruc- 
tive earthquake known to that time in the United States 
occurred at Charleston, South Carolina, in the summer 
of 188(3. Many buildings were shaken down or otherwise 
badly damaged, the loss in proi)erty being over five mil- 
lion dollars. Fortunately, the loss in life was not large. 

771. The Election of 1888.— In 1888 Grover Cleveland 
was again nominated for President by the Democratic 
party, and Benjamin Harrison, grandson of the former 
President Harrison, by the Ri'publican party, Harrison 
was elected with a majority of sixty-five electoral votes. 




1889] BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 393 
6. BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION ' 

From 1889 to 1893 

772. The Opening of Oklahoma. — President Harrison 
was inaugurated March 4, 1889, and shortly afterwards 
an interesting event took place. In ^ ■ - k. 
the western section of the Indian 
Territory a large tract of land, not 
occupied by the Indians, had been 
purchased and set aside for white 
settlers. It was known as Oklahoma. 
The hour of noon on April 22 was 
fixed for its opening to settlers, and 
at that hour fifty thousand persons 
were waiting to take up claims under bekjamix hakrison. 
the land laws of the United States. 

When the signal was given by a bugle blast a wild 
rush was made across the border, and before night 
much of the territory was staked out in claims and 
several towns located. Oklahoma was afterwards 
largely increased in size by the purchase of other 
lands from the Indians. 

773. New States. — While Oklahoma Territory, after- 
wards to become a State, was being settled, the num- 
ber of States in the Union was rapidly increasing, no 
less than four — North Dakota, South Dakota, Mon- 

' Benjamin Harrison, born in Ohio in 1833, was a grandson of 
President William Henry Harrison and great grandson of one of 
the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He graduated from 
Miami University, studied law, and entered the army in 1862 as 
second lieutenant, rising to the rank of brevet brigadier general. 
He was elected United States Senator in 1880. After his term as 
Preeident, he ran again in 1892, but was defeated. Died in 1901. 



394 



PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION 



[1889 



tana, and Washington — being admitted in 1889, and 
two others — Idaho and Wyoming — in 1890. This 
was the largest addition to our family of States made 
in any one administration. 

774. The Johnstown Flood. — In the same year (1889) 
took place a disaster, the most destructive to human 
life ever known in the United States. On May 31, a 
large dam on a stream in central Pennsylvania gave 
way and a torrent of water forty feet high swept 




The John'stowx Flood. 

down the valley of the Conemaugh River towards the 
city of Johnstown, several miles below. This busy 
seat of manufacture was almost entirely swept away, 
more than two thousand of its people being drowned 
and ten million dollars' worth of property destroyed. 
The whole country vied in sending supplies of food and 
money to the suffering survivors. 

775. The Sioux Indian Outbreak. — By placing the 
Indians on reservations and looking after their interests 
the government had for years avoided any trouble 



1890] BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 395 

with them. But in 1890 there was a disturbance among 
the Sioux arising from a behef that an Indian Messiah 
was coming to destroy the whites and avenge the 
wrongs done to red men. Several thousand of them 
gathered at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, where 
they fired on the troops who tried to deprive them of 
their firearms. A battle took place in which about 
two hundred were killed. This seems likely to be the 
last Indian outbreak, as they are rapidly developing 
into civilized habits. 

776. The Pension List. — The custom of paying pen- 
sions to invalid soldiers had long existed in the United 
States, and in 1890 this system was extended by a 
law which granted a pension to all former soldiers 
who were unable to earn a living. This added greatly 
to the number of pensioners, and the payments in 
1893 exceeded one hundred and fifty million dollars. 
A further law was passed in 1904 which placed all 
soldiers over sixty-two years of age on the pension 
list, and in 1907 the amount paid each old soldier was 
considerably increased. Therefore, though the vet- 
erans of the civil war are fast dying off, the total 
payments have very slowly decreased. 

777. The McKinley Tariff.— The tariff of the Civil 
War period had remained almost intact to the time 
now reached. An effort had been made to pass a bill 
with lower rates during the Cleveland administration, 
but without effect, the Republicans controlling Con- 
gress. In 1890 a bill known as the McKinley Tariff, 
from its being introduced in the House by William 
McKinley, was passed. While some articles were made 
free, the tariff rates on many articles were much 



396 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1890-92 

increased. One of its features was the "reciprocity 
measure," by which certain articles were reduced or 
made free to countries which gave the same advantage 
to certain articles supphed by the United States. 
This applied chiefly to the nations of America. The 
McKinley bill was the first important change in the 
tariff that had taken place since the Civil War. 

778. The Census of 1890.— The census of the people 
of the United States taken in 1890 showed a popula- 
tion of 62,622,250. The first census, taken in 1790, a 
hundred years before, had given a population of 3,929,- 
214. Thus within a century the number of people 
had increased more than fifty-eight millions. 

779. Important Anniversaries. — During the period 
from 1880 to 1890 a number of important historical 
anniversaries were celebrated, including in 1881 the 
centennial anniversary of the surrender of Cornwallis, 
held at Yorktown; in 1882 the bicentennial anniversary 
of the landing of William Pcnn, and in 1887 the 
centennial anniversary of the Constitutional Conven- 
tion, both celebrated at Philadelphia; and in 1889, 
the centennial anniversary of Washington's inaugu- 
ration as President, held at New York. 

780. The World's Columbian Exposition. — The occa- 
sions above named were followed by another of world- 
wide historical importance, the four hundredth anni- 
versary of the discovery of America by Columbus in 
1492. This was celebrated in 1892 by a naval parade 
of all nations in New York Harbor and by processions 
and demonstrations elsewdiere, but in particular by a 
great World's Fair in Chicago, the buildings, of which 
were dedicated in Octobei with imposing ceremonies. 



1892] CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 397 

The Exposition was opened on May 1 of the follow- 
ing year and continued open for six months, during 
which time it was visited by many millions of people. 
It was organized on a splendid scale and in the beauty 
of its buildings and grounds and the attractiveness 
and educational value of its exhibits had never been 
surpassed. It was especially interesting in its display 
of the remarkable progress in electric lighting and 
power made since the Centennial Exposition of 1876. 

781. The Election of 1892.— During President Harri- 
son's term of ofHce a change came over the political 
aspect of the country, shown in 1890 by a great Demo- 
cratic triumph in the election of new members of the 
House of Representatives, and in 1892 by a similar 
triumph in the Presidential election. On this occa- 
sion the Democrats renominated Grover Cleveland, 
who had been President four years before, with Adlai 
E. Stevenson for Vice President. The Republicans 
renominated President Harrison, with Whitelaw Reid 
for Vice President. The People's Party, organized 
this year, its members generally known as Populists, 
also made a nomination, choosing James B. Weaver, 
of Iowa, as its Presidential candidate, and was strong 
enough to obtain twenty-tw^o electoral votes. Cleve- 
land was elected, with an electoral majority of one 
hundred and ten votes. 

7. CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 
From 1893 to 1897 

782. The Democratic Supremacy.— Since 1860 the 
Democratic party had never had a majority in all 
branches of the government. When it won its first 



398 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1893 

President, in 1884, Congress was divided between the 
two parties. In 1893 it had a majority in all branches, 
the Executive, the House, and the Senate, and was 
able for the first time to control legislation and pass 
laws in accordance with its principles. It was delib- 
erate, however, in doing so, a new tariff bill not being 
passed until 1894. Though this reduced the duties 
on many articles, it did not make enough change to 
please the President. While he did not veto it, he 
declined to sign it, letting it become a law without his 
signature. 

783. A Great Business Depression. — The inaugura- 
tion of President Cleveland was quickly followed by a 
severe depression in business, which continued with 
little change throughout his term and caused great 
distress, failures being very numerous and hosts of 
workmen thrown out of employment. This and the 
reduction of wages, led to many strikes of workmen. 

Of these strikes the most important began in 1893 
among the workmen in the Pullman car-building 
shops near Chicago and extended to the railroad men 
of that city, who refused to take out trains containing 
Pullman cars. This caused great interference in travel 
and led to the destruction of much railroad property. 
It was brought to an end by United States troops, 
whom the President sent to Chicago to maintain orde/' 
and protect the movement of the mail-cars. 

784. The Sherman Act Repealed. — President Cleve- 
land was of the opinion that the business trouble was 
due to the large coinage of silver under the Sherman 
Act of 1890, which provided for the purchase every 
month of four and a half million ounces of buUion to be 



1895] 



CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 



399 



coined into silver dollars. A law was passed stopping 
these purchases, but the large amount of silver bullion 
in the Treasury was allowed to be coined. 

785- The Venezuelan Controversy. — A dispute had 
long existed in relation to the boundary line between 
British Guiana and Venezuela, in South America, and 
as Great Britain seemed inclined to settle the dispute 
by force, Cleveland called the attention of Congress to 
this matter, saying that this country, under the Monroe 
Doctrine, could not permit this unjust seizure of 
American territory to take place. The case was in- 
vestigated by a commission, and after a long debate 
Great Britain consented to submit it to arbitration. 
It was thus peacefully and legally settled, this being 
one of the great triumphs of the Monroe Doctrine. 

786. Hawaii and Cuba. — There were several foreign 
questions to be settled. The people of Hawaii had 
rebelled again and 
deposed their 
queen, and now 
asked for annexa- 
tion to the United 
States. This the 
President declined 
to grant, and the 
Hawaiian Islands 
were made a repub- 
lic. The President 
was also asked to 
accord the rights of belligerents to the insurrectionists 
in Cuba, who had rebelled against Spain and were 
having much success. This also he declined to do. 




A Native Hawaiian Hut. 



400 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1S96 

787. Utah Made a State. — A new State, the forty- 
fifth in the American Union, was admitted in 1S06. 
This was Utah, a territory which the Mormons had 
sought as a harbor of refuge in 1S47, but which now 
had a large population of others than Mormons. The 
practice of polygamy among the Mormons — that is. 
the right of a man to have more than one wife — had 
been forbidden by law in 1882, and as this law was 
now obeyed Utah was accepted as a State, it being 
proclaimed on January 4, 1896. Its constitution gave 
the right of full suffrage to women. This already 
existed in Wyoming and Colorado, was adopted by 
Idaho in 1S9G. and by several States in 1910 and later. 

788. The Election of 1896.— When the Presidential 
3'ear of 1S9G came, the prevalence of "hard times" for 
four j'ears had a strong effect on the political situa- 
tion, people who are suft'ering from want of work being 
very apt to lay the blame on the party in power and to 
seek a change. The Republicans, under the idea that 
the trouble was due to the Democratic tariff policy, 
nominated William McKinley, the originator of the 
protective tariff' of 1890. The Democratic party, on 
the contrary, laid the blame on the law suppressing 
silver coinage and demanded ''the free and unlimited 
coinage of silver at the present legal ratio of sixteen to 
one," — that is, sixteen ounces of silver to one ounce of 
gold. William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, an earnest ad- 
vocate of ''free silver," was nominated. The People's 
party, which held the same policy, also nominated 
Mr. Bryan. 

In the campaign the tariff' issue was lost sight of 
and "free silver" and "honest money" were the 



1S971 



McKIXLEYS ADMINISTRATION 



401 



campaign cries of the two parties. Silver was then 
worth in the market Httle more than half its coinage 
value and Republicans held that gold was the only 
honest money. They won in the election, McKinley 
receiving a majority of ninety-five electoral votes. 
They also regained their former majority in the 
House, while the Senate was equally divided between 
the two parties. 

S. McKIXLEY'S ADMINISTRATION * 

From IS97 to Sept. 14, 1901 

789. A New Tariff. — President McKinley was inaug- 
urated on March 4, 1S97, and at once called an extra 
session of Congress to consider the 
state of the country. It had for 
some years been running into 
debt, its revenue being too small 
to meet its expenses, while a severe 
business depression had continued 
for several years. He believed 
that a new tariff, laying higher 
duties on imported goods, wouhl 
overcome this difficulty, and 
such a tariff' bill was passed, 

receiving the President's signature in July, 1S97. 

790. Other Events. — The other important events of 
this period were an immense overflow of the Missis- 

' William McKinley was born in Ohio in 1S43, served as a soldier 
through the Civil War, and was for several terms in Congress. 
In ISOO, as chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, he 
originated the high tariff bill known as the McKinley Tariff. He 
was governor of Ohio from 1890 to 1894, and was elected President 
for two terms, dying by assassination in 1901. 




William McKixlet. 



402 



PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION 



[1897 



sippi River, which caused great loss and suffering to the 
people along its banks, and the discovery of rich 
deposits of gold along the Klondike River, a branch 
of the Yukon River of Alaska. This took thousands of 
miners to that country and cities sprang up in the 
frozen desert. The Klondike is in Canada, but gold 
has also been found at Cape Nome, in Alaska, and 
that cold country, once thought worthless, is now found 
to be of great value in many ways. 




t'opyi-ight i;»()0 by Wm. K. Kau. 

Street Scene in Dawson City, on the Yukon. 

791. Rebellion in Cuba. — For several years there had 
been a serious state of affairs in the island of Cuba^ 
then belonging to Spain. It had been badly governed 
and the people broke into rebellion, fighting so hard 
for liberty that Spain sent a large army there to put 
down the insurrection. General Weyler, who com- 
manded this army, treated the people so cruelly that 
many of them died of starvation and great sj^mpathy 
was felt for them in this country. 



1898] McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 403 

792. The Sinking of the Maine.— In January, 1898, 
the battleship Maine was sent to the harbor of Havana 
to look after the interests of Americans in that city. 
A dreadful event followed. On the night of February 
15 an explosion took place under the Maine with such 
terrible force that the great ship was torn asunder 
and sank with most of her crew. In that frightful 
moment two hundred and sixty-four of the crew and 
two of the officers were killed or mortally injured. 

793. Revenge Demanded. — When the news of this 
event reached the United States there was intense 
excitement and indignation. The Spanish were every- 
where blamed for the outrage and revenge was de- 
manded on all sides. Congress had the same feeling 
as the people. Spain, it was declared, must be punished 
for this outrage and Cuba taken from her cruel hands. 
This feeling grew stronger when a court of inquiry 
decided that the Maine had been destroyed by a mine 
of some powerful explosive placed under her bottom, 
and that this must have been done by Spanish hands. 

794. A Declaration of War. — The war spirit now 
grew intense. On April 11 President McKinley sent a 
message to Congress, asking for authority to put an 
end to the cruelty of the Spanish governor by force of 
arms, and on the 20th a message was sent to Spain, 
bidding her to remove her forces from Cuba and giving 
her till the 23rd to reply. The reply of Spain was to 
send the American minister his passport, which was 
equivalent to a declaration of war, and on the 25th war 
was declared by this country. 

795. The Seats of War. — The war that followed was a 
remarkably short one. It was all over in less than 



404 



PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION 



[1898 



four months. It was fought in two separate regions, 
the PhiHppine Islands in the Pacific and Cuba and 
Porto Rico in the Atlantic. At Hong Kong, China, was 
a squadron of American naval vessels under Commo- 
dore George Dewey, who was at once ordered by tele- 
graph to proceed to Manila, the capital city of the 
Philippines, and capture or destroy the Spanish fleet 
at that place. 




-,si^""»-»-' 







('opjrisrlit T^'is ti> Arkell Publishing Company 

The Annihilation of the Spanish 1-i.i;i.t 



IHK Hakhok 



Manila. 



796. Dewey at Manila.— Dewey's ships reached the 
harbor of Manila on the night of April 30. Early the 
next morning he attacked the Spanish fleet, and with 
such success that in a few hours the whole fleet was in 
flames or had been sunk and all the crews were dead 
or captives. On the American side not a ship was 
seriously injured and not a man killed. The victory 
was so notable that Commodore Dewey was rewarded 
by being made rear-admiral, and soon after admiral, 



1898] McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 405 

the highest rank in our navy, and reserved for men 
of exceptional worth. 

797. Manila is Taken. — As soon as possible ships and 
soldiers were sent to Dewey and on August 13 the 
city of Manila was captured by a combined assault of 
the American arm}' and fleet. This happened after 
the end of the war, for the Americans had been equally 
successful in the west and a preliminary treaty of 
peace was signed on August 12. What took place 
elsewhere must be briefly told. 

798. The Blockade of Santiago. — The blockade of 
Havana and the neighboring coast v/as the first step 
in the Cuban War. This extended until ail the impor- 
tant ports were blockaded, including that of Santiago, 
on the southeast coast. This was of importance, for a 
squadron of Spanish cruisers, under Admiral Cervera, 
had reached the harbor of Santiago in advance of the 
American ships. In consequence this city became the 
chief seat of the war, it having a strong Spanish 
garrison, while in its harbor lay all the Spanish naval 
vessels of any importance. 

799. The Merrimac Sunk. — An attempt was made on 
June 3 to block up the Spanish ships in Santiago har- 
bor by sinking a large coaling vessel, the Merrimac, in 
the narrow channel leading to it. This effort failed 
through an injury to the rudder by a shot, and Lieu- 
tenant Hobson and his men were captured. The 
Merrimac sank lengthwise instead of across the chan- 
nel, leaving room to pass the sunken wreck. 

800. Cuba Invaded. — Meanwhile an army of inva- 
sion had been gathered in the United States and in 
middle June a force of 15,000 men, under Major* 



406 



i»ROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION 



[1898 



General Shafter, landed at a point east of Santiago. 
A march was at once made towards that city and some 
hard fighting took place, chiefly on the fortified hill 
of San Juan and before the village of El Caney. An 
attack was made on the Spanish intrenchments on the 
1st of July, the battle lasting through most of the day 
and the Spaniards being driven from their works before 
nightfall. Among those who took part in this charge was 
Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, of later fame, and his regi- 
ment of dismounted cowboys known as "Rough Riders." 




Tin; X\\\i, 15\L-n,i: at S\\ii\i;o. 

801. Flight and Fate of Cervera's Ships. — This victory 
put the Spanish squadron in the harbor in a position 
of danger, since the city might be taken at any time 
by assault. On July 3 it made a desperate effort to 
escape, running past the sunken Merrimac and out to 
sea. But it was pursued so sharply and attacked so 
vigorously by the American fleet that one after another 
of the Spanish ships was set on fire and driven ashore 
in flames. Most of the sailors were killed and the 
remainder, with their admiral, captured. On the 
American fleet only one man was killed. 



1899] McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 407 

802. The Army Surrenders. — A short time after- 
wards the Spanish army, shut up closely in the city, 
and short of food supplies, surrendered, all the Spanish 
soldiers in the eastern end of Cuba being yielded as 
prisoners of war. 

This was followed by the invasion of the island of 
Porto Rico by General Miles with a strong force. He 
was rapidly taking possession of the island when news 
came that a protocol, or preliminary treaty of peace, 
had been signed and hostilities were at an end. 

803. The Treaty of Peace. — Thus ended this very 
brief war, in which Spain made a poor show of its 
fighting power; In the treaty that followed Spain 
conceded the independence of Cuba and ceded to the 
United States the Philippine Archipelago, the island 
of Porto Rico, and Guam, a small island in the Pacific, 
the United States agreeing to pay Spain $20,000,000 
for its public buildings and other improvements in 
the Philippines. 

804. The Philippine Insurrection. — The Philippine 
people were not willing to be turned over in this 
manner from Spain to the United States, and early 
in 1899 they broke into insurrection under a daring 
and able leader, Emilio Aguinaldo. The war that 
followed was marked by much sharp fighting, and was 
not brought to an end until March, 1901, when Aguin- 
aldo, the Philippine leader, was captured and the other 
insurgents surrendered. 

805. Hawaii Annexed. — We have already spoken af 
the formation of a republic in the Hawaiian Islands of 
the Pacific, and the refusal of President Cleveland to 
accept its offer of annexation to the United States, 



408 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1900 

This offer was repeated to President McKinley and was 
accepted by Congress in July, 1899. Thus a large 
group of fertile islands was added to the United States. 
In the following year they were given a territorial 
government, under the name of the Territory of 
Hawaii. 

806. The Samoaii Treaty. — As will be seen, this 
country was extending its possessions far over the 
oceans. Another addition was made to it in December, 
1899, when the Samoan Islands in the South Pacific 
were divided between Germany and the United States. 
Germany obtained the larger islands, but the United 
States gained the island of Tutuila, with the harbor of 
Pago Pago, thought to be the finest in the Pacific ocean. 

807. The Boxer Outbreak in China. — Another foreign 
event in which the country w^as interested was a 
dangerous outbreak which took place in China, where 
a warhke society known as "Boxers" attacked the 
missionaries in that country, marched upon Peking, 
and besieged the foreign ministers in their legation 
buildings, the German minister being killed. The 
Chinese government made no effort to put down the in- 
surrection and the lives of the ministers were saved only 
by a strong force of allied troops, including American 
soldiers, which marched upon and captured Peking in 
August, 1900, and held it until the Chinese government 
accepted very severe terms of retribution for the outrage. 

808. The Election of 1900.— In the Presidential cam- 
paign of 1900 the Republicans renominated President 
McKinley, choosing as their candidate for Vice Presi- 
dent Theodore Roosevelt, who had become well 
known in the late war and had since been Governor 



1901 j McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 409 

of New York. The Democrats also renominated their 
former candidate, WiUiam J. Brj^an, with Adlai E. 
Stevenson for Vice President, he having held this 
office in the second Cleveland administration. Mc- 
Kinley was re-elected with the large electoral majority 
of one hundred and thirty-seven votes, and was in- 
augurated on March 4, 1901. 

809. The Assassination of the President. — President 
McKinley's second term was destined to be a short 
one. In September, 1901, he visited an Exposition of 
the products of the American republics, then being 
held at Buffalo, New York, and on the 6th, while 
shaking hands with a line of visitors, he was shot by 
an anarchist named Leon Czolgosz. The exalted 
victim survived for a week, and strong hopes of his 
recovery were entertained, but his hurt proved fatal, 
death coming to him on September 14. This tragedy 
stirred the country deeply, while many messages of 
condolence came from foreign lands. The days of 
mourning continued all the 19th, when the final 
funeral ceremonies took place at Canton, Ohio, the- 
place of residence of the lamented victim. 

SUMMARY OF EVENTS. 

1865-1868. President Johnson seeks to readmit the seceded 
States, and Congress opposes him. The Tliirteenth Amendment to 
the Constitution ends the slave system. A bitter dispute between 
the President and Congress leads to an impeachment of the Presi- 
dent, followed by his acquital. The French obHged to leave 
Mexico and the Monroe Doctrine vindicated. 

1869-1876. General Grant President. The Fifteenth Amend- 
ment gives the negroes the right to vote. The Alabama claims are 
arbitrated. Charges of corruption in Congress. The panic of 1873. 
The election of 1876 and its perilr>us result. 



410 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION 

1877-1880. President Hayes ends military rule in the South. 
Specie payments are resumed. Silver coinage ended and restored. 
The great railroad strike of 1877. Yellow fever in the south. 

ISS 1-1884. Civil service reform and the murder of President 
Garfield. Industrial exhibitions in the South. The Washington 
Monument is completed. 

1885-1889. A Democratic President elected. The Interstate 
Commerce and Chinese Exclusion Acts jDassed. Anarchy's victims 
in Chicago. An earthquake at Charleston. 

1889-1892. Oklahoma opened to settlers. Many new States 
are admitted. A great flood at Johnstown, Pennsylvania. Exten- 
sion of the pension system. A new high tariff bill passed. The 
great W'orld's Exposition at Chicago. 

1893-1896. The Democrats in power and a new tariff bill passed. 
A great business depression takes place. President Cleveland ap- 
plies the Monroe Doctrine to Great Britain and Venezuela. 

1897-1901. High tariff is restored. Rebellion in Cuba, the 
sinking of the IMaine, and a declaration of war against Spain. 
Dewey's victory at Manila and the taking of that city. The fleets 
at Santiago. That city assailed and the Spanish ships destroyed. 
The end of the war and treaty of peace. An insurrection in the 
Philippines. Hawaii is annexed. The Boxer outbreak in China. 
President McKinley is assassinated. 

TOPICS FOR REVIEW. 

Oral or written. 

Territorial Growth of the United States. — Extent at the close 
of the Revolution — name and tell how and when each addition has 
been made — tell its extent and area. (See map.) 

States in the Union. — Original number — number at present — 
admission of the several States — tell how the States compare with 
respect to area and population — explain Civil Ser\'ice reform — give the 
cause of Chinese exclusion. 

REFERENCE BOOKS. 

1. Roosevelt's Winning of the West. 2. Schurz's Henry Clay. 
3. Sumner's Andrew Jackson. 4. Greeley's Recollcctinni^. 5. Ripley's 
War with Mexico. 6. King's The New South. 7. Morris's The War 
with Spain. 8. Morris's The Nation's Navy. 



PART XI 

THE UNITED STATES IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 




1. ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION' 
From the Death of McKinley to 1909 

310. Roosevelt Becomes President. — On the day of 

President McKinley 's death, Theodore Roosevelt, the 
Vice President, took the oath of 
office at Buffalo, and was installed 
as the twenty-sixth President of 
the United States. He began his 
career with a rigid observance of 
the principles of the Civil Service! 
Reform, refusing to make appoint- 
ments to office on any other standard 
than that of merit, and soon showed 
an activity in the cause of reform 
and a disregard of party affiliations 
that won him the admiring support of a large body 
of the people. 

' Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York City in 1858, 
graduated in Harvard Law School, and took an active part in 
politics. He was a reform member of the New Y^ork Legislature, 
Civil Service Commissioner, President of the Police Board of New 
Y'ork City, and in 1897 was appointed Assistant Secretary of the 
Navy. In 1898 he won a reputation as leader of the "Rough 
Riders" in the war with Spain and was elected Governor of New 
York. This brought him the nomination for Vice President and 
the death of McKinley made him President. He was elected 
President in 1904, and in 1912 organized and became the 
candidate of the Progressive party, but was defeated. 

411 



Cupjiight, L'liui-duiot. 
Theodore Roosevelt. 



412 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY [1903 

811. Cuba a Republic. — The United States could 
easily have added Cuba to its possessions and Euro- 
peans generally expected it to do so. But it had 
promised not to do this and it kept its promise, the 
American flag being lowered in Havana and the troops 
withdrawn on Maj^ 20, 1902, the day when the newly 
organized Republic of Cuba came into existence. 
Four years later a revolt broke out in Cuba which 
its government was unable to suppress, and the United 
States, in accordance with its reserved rights, sent 
troops there and established a provisional govern- 
ment. But these were withdrawn as soon as the 
Cuban government was reorganized. 

812. Events of 1903.— The year 1903 was marked by 
two important events. One of these was the adding 
of a new Department, that of Commerce and Labor, 
to the Executive branch of the Government, its 
Secretary becoming the ninth member of the Cabi- 
net. The other was the settling of the long pending 
question of the boundary between Canada and Alaska. 
This was submitted to arbitration and a decision made 
in favor of the American claim, the line fixed on follow- 
ing the mountain crests ten miles back from the water. 

813. The Louisiana Purchase Exposition. — The year 
1903 being the hundredth anniversary of the purchase 
from France of the great region then known as Louisi- 
ana, it was celebrated by a grand exposition of indus- 
try at St. Louis, the buildings being dedicated in 
April, 1903, though they were not ready for the public 
till the spring of 1904. The display was on a very 
large scale, the decoration of the grounds highly effec- 
tive, and the exhibits very numerous and striking. 



i9o:^j 



ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 



413 



Two other expositions worthy of mention were the 
one at Portland, Oregon, in 1905, in commemoration 
of the Lewis and Clark expedition a century before, 
and the one at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1907, in honor 
of the first successful English colony in America, three 
hundred years before. 

814. Isthmian Canal. — One of the most impor- 
tant events of President Roosevelt's first term of 




^ii.wi .sh<j\ 1 L A.T Work on the Panama Canal. 

office was the final decision on the route of a ship canal 
across the narrow region connecting North and South 
America. A French company had sought to construct 
such a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, while the 
United States had it in view to construct one across 
Nicaragua. This plan was abandoned in 1902, when 
the French company offered to sell its parth' com- 
pleted canal for $40,000,000. While the negotiations 
were proceeding, Panama seceded from Colombia and 



414 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



[1904 



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Railway and Canal from Panama to Colon. 



founded a separate republic. From this the United 
States bought the right of way for $10,000,000 and in 
1904 began work on the canal. This was so rapidly pros- 
ecuted that the canal 
was completed and 
opened to commerce 
August 15, 1914. The 
total cost was about 
$375,000,000. 

815. Settlement of the 
Coal Strike.— In 1902 
took place the most 
serious strike of coal 
miners this country 
has yet known, nearly 
150,000 of the anthra- 
cite miners of Pennsylvania going on a strike that lasted 
for six months. As a result the people suffered severely 
throughout the following winter from the great scarcity 
and high price of coal. An interesting feature of it 
was that it was settled through the intervention of 
President Roosevelt, who brought about a successful 
arbitration. But many blamed him severely for 
departing from the usual neutrality of the Executive 
on such occasions. 

816. Character of the President. — President Roose- 
velt had shown that he did not propose to be governed 
by precedent. Impulsive and energetic, he surpassed 
all other Presidents in recommending legislation to 
Congress and in taking active measures to have it 
considered. This legislation had usually to do with 
some reform or with controlling the power of cor- 



1906] ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 415 

porations, and was accompanied with so many indi- 
cations of honor and uprightness and genuine desire 
for the pubhc good that he became a great favorite 
of the common people. 

817. The Election of 1904. — Roosevelt's popularity 
was strikingly shown in the Presidential election of 
1904, when he was given a very large majority over 
his Democratic opponent, Alton B. Parker, receiving 
three hundred and thirty-six electoral votes against 
one hundred and forty for Parker, making the large 
majority of one hundred and ninety-six. 

818. The Portsmouth Peace Conference. — The first 
year of Roosevelt's new term was marked by a strik- 
ing example of his disposition to widen the scope ol 
his activities. The great war between Japan and 
Russia was then going on, much to the advantage of 
Japan. Roosevelt suggested that the warring parties 
should hold a peace conference and induced them to 
do so, the conference being held at Portsmouth, New 
Hampshire, and resulting in a treaty of peace which 
was signed September 5, 1905. The President's agency 
in this gained him great credit abroad, wdiich was 
added to by his efforts to have a second Peace Congress 
held at the Hague. His services in the cause of peace 
were recognized by the award to him, in 1906, of the 
Nobel prize, given to the one who had done the most 
in bringing about peaceful relations among the nations 
of the earth. 

819. The San Francisco Earthquake. — On the 18th 
of April, 1906, took place far the most destructive 
earthquake in the history of our country. Its seat 
was in California, the populous city of San Francisco 



416 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



[1906 



being in the centre of its violence. Business houses 
and dwellings on all sides were leveled with the earth 
and hundreds of people killed. Fire followed the 
earth shock, sweeping through the richest part of the 
city and causing an enormous loss, estimated at 
$300,000,000. Many smaller towns were ruined and 
the devastation was wide-spread. Many millions of 







Copyriglit 100(1 by W. }I. Kun. 



iiiL L'ir\ Hall, San Fkancisc 



dollars were contributed by the charitable through- 
out the country for the relief of the sufferers and the 
rebuilding of the city has gone on with remarkable 
rapidity. 

820. Oklahoma Admitted as a State. — One more State, 
the forty-sixth member of the Union, was admitted in 
1907. This was Oklahoma, composed of the former 
Oklahoma and Indian Territories. A bill was passed 
for this purpose by Congress in 1906, and also one to 



1906] ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 417 

combine New Mexico and Arizona into a State. In the 
latter case the bill was defeated, the people of Arizona 
voting largely against it and demanding to be made 
into a separate State. 

821. Reform Movements and Legislation. — In 1905 
began a wide-spread movement for political and busi- 
ness reform, which continued during the following 
years. Several of the great life-insurance companies 
were rigidly investigated and much evidence found of 
fraud and corruption, steps being taken to insure 
honesty in the future. Bills were also passed in Con- 
gress to regulate freight charges on the railroads, to 
prevent unclean methods of meat-packing, the adul- 
teration of food and medicines, etc. The great trust 
companies suspected of fraud and dishonesty were 
investigated and lawsuits brought against some of the 
largest of them. Such were some of the steps in the 
direction of public reform which marked the early 
years of the twentieth century. 

822. Irrigation. — Irrigation of the arid lands of the 
^Yest by water taken from the rivers and conveyed in 
canals to the fields had been going on for years and in 
1902 a law was passed by Congress in which the govern- 
ment took this work in hand. Huge dams are being 
built to hold back the waters of the mountain streams,, 
making great artificial lakes from which the water 
can be carried to the fields in the farming season. In 
this way many millions of acres of former useless 
lands are being changed into fertile farms. 

823. National Parks and Forest Reservations. — Sev- 
eral regions of great natural beauty or wonder have 
been set aside as National Parks, including the Yosemite 

27 



418 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



[1908 



Valley, the Yellowstone region, and also some of 
the great battle-fields of the Civil War. In addition 
to this a number of great tracts of forest have been 
set aside as government reservations, with the pur- 
pose of protecting the sources of the rivers, the forest 
brooks from which the great streams rise. These 
national forests now cover more than one hundred 
and fifty million acres. 




Opening ax Ik hi 



824. The New Navy. — Something must here be said 
on a very important subject, the United States Navy. 
In reading about the Civil War you have seen the 
account of the battle between the iron-clad Monitor 
and Mcrrimac in Hampton Roads. After that battle 
the nations ceased to build wooden ships for their 
navies, but replaced them with vessels covered with 
thick plates of iron, and later on of steel. 



1908] ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 419 

The United States was slow in following up the 
lesson it had taught, and for twenty years after the 
war it did very little for the improvement of the navy. 
Then it began an active building of steel-plated war- 
vessels, and to-day it possesses some of the swiftest 
and most powerful battleships and cruisers of the 
world and no nation but Great Britain has a larger 
or better navy. 

825. Battleships' Trip Round the World.— One of the 
most interesting events connected with our navy 
was the voyage round the world made in 1908 by a 
great fleet of American battleships, sixteen in num- 
ber. This fleet left Hampton Roads, Virginia, Decem- 
ber 16, 1907, and sailed around the whole coast of 
South America, and north to San Francisco. From 
this city it crossed the Pacific, visiting Hawaii, Aus- 
tralia, New Zealand, Japan, China, and the Philip- 
pines, returning by way of the Red Sea and the 
Mediterranean, and reaching Hampton Roads, its 
starting place, on February 22, 1909. In all the 
foreign ports visited it was received with an enthu- 
siastic welcome, and it reached home again very little 
the worse for its great voyage. There had been noth- 
ing like this in the world's history, and it gave the 
United States a high standing among the naval powers. 

826. The Election of 1908.— In the Presidential elec- 
tion of 1908 there were many candidates in the field, 
seven different parties making nominations, but only 
the Democratic and Republic candidates won any 
electoral votes. Many Republicans desired President 
Roosevelt to run again, but he positively declined and 
William H. Taft, his Secretary of War, was nomi- 



420 



THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 



[1909 



natcd. The Democratic party nominated William J. 
Bryan, who thus had the distinction of being nomi- 
nated three times for the Presidency. He was again 
defeated, receiving one hundred and sixty-two elec- 
toral votes against three hundred and twenty-one 
for Taft, who was thus elected with an electoral 
majority of one hundred and fifty-nine votes. 

2. TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION I 
From 1909 to 1913. 

827. President Taft Inaugurated.— William H. Taft 
was inaugurated as President of the United States on 
the 4th of March, 1909, in the midst of the worst 
storm that had ever visited Wash- 
ington on a similar occasion. As 
early March is very apt to be 
-torniy, it was seriously considered 
TO change the day of inauguration 
to a later date, such as the 30th of 
April, the date of President Wash- 
ington's first inauguration. 

828. Revision of the Tariff.— Presi- 
dent Taft's first important official 
act was to call an extra session of 
Congress to consider the question of revising the 
tariff, making lower rates, as had been promised in the 
RepubHcan platform. For nearly two years, since 

1 William Howard Taft was born at Cincinnati, Ohio, September 
1-5, 1S57. He graduated at Yale and at the Cincinnati Law School, 
was admitted to the bar of Ohio, and practiced law until 1SS7, 
when he was made Judge of the Superior Court of Ohio. In 1S90 
he became Solicitor General of the United States, in 1S92 United 
States Circuit Judge, in 1900 was made President of the Philippine 




Copyright, i liiiidiust. 
William H. Taft 



1909] 



TAFT'S ADxMINISTRATION 



421 



October, 1907, there had been a serious business de- 
pression, which many thought would pass away when 
the revision of the tariff was completed and this great 
question adjusted for the best interests of manufac- 
turing and other national conditions. While the tariff 




End of Manttfacturers' Building, with Cascade Mountains in Distance, 
A. Y. P. Exhibition, Seattle. 

debate in Congress continued business remained in a 
depressed state, though there were strong indications 
of improvement and a general revival was looked for 
when this great question was out of the way. 



Commission, and in 1901 was appointed Governor of the Philip- 
pine Islands. Declining an appointment as Justice of the U. S. 
Supreme Court, he became Secretarj^ of War in the Roosevelt 
Cabinet in 1904, resigning in June, 1908, when nominated as 
Republican candidate for the Presidency. He was elected in 
November, with James S. Sherman, of New York, as Vice Presi- 
dent. While Secretary of War he acted for a time as Provi- 
sional Governor of Cuba He was the Republican candidate 
for the Presidency in 1912, but was defeated. 



422 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY [1909 

829. Celebrations of 1909. — An interesting event of 
the opening year of the Taft administration was the 
holding of an international exposition at Seattle, Wash- 
ington, in commemoration of the great development 
of the Alaska and Yukon regions and of the Pacific 
trade. This, entitled " The Alaska- Yukon-Pacific 
Exposition," was opened with appropriate ceremonies 
on June 1, 1909, the buildings being erected on the 
shores of Puget Sound, and containing an imposing 
display of the resources of the far "West. 

Another occasion of much interest in the same year 
was the Hudson-Fulton celebration in New York City, 
commemorating the discovery of the Hudson River by 
Henry Hudson in 1609, and the pioneer voyage of 
Fulton's steamboat in 1807. This consisted of street 
and river parades on a grand scale and various other 
striking and appropriate ceremonies. Exact repro- 
ductions of Hudson's ship, the Half Moon, and of 
Fulton's steamboat, the Clermont, were prominent 
features of the occasion. 

830. Political Events. — The new tariff bill which was 
passed in July, 1909. failed to give general satisfaction, 
even many members of the Republican party feeling 
that it did not keep to the promise made in the party 
platform. The old method of changing the whole 
tariff at one time was objected to, it being said that 
each article of commerce ought to be dealt with sepa- 
rately when a change was needed, and that there should 
be a permanent Tariff Board to studj^ the subject and 
recommend changes; but the bill to create such a 
Board failed in Congress. An amendment to the 



TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION 423 

Constitution was passed in Congress and submitted 
to the States for ratification in July, 1909, giving the 
government the right to levy and collect a tax on 
incomes. The three-fourths vote of the States neces- 
sary for the adoption of this amendment was com- 
pleted by the vote of Delaware on February 3, 1913, 
and on the same day Wyoming and New Mexico voted 
for it, making thirty-eight States in all. It will stand as 
the XVI amendment. Another amendment, the XVII, 
providing for the election of United States Senators by 
a direct vote of the people, passed in 1912, w^as finally 
ratified by the vote of Connecticut, April 18, 1913. 

831. Discovery of the North Pole .—On . April 6, 1909, 
Commander Robert E. Peary, of the United States 
Navy, who had made several voyages of discovery to 
the Arctic seas, succeeded in the great enterprise of 
reaching the North Pole and planting there his coun- 
try's flag. The news of this splendid achievement was 
received on September 6, five days after Frederick A. 
Cook, of Brooklyn, who had been two years in the 
Arctic Zone, announced a similar discovery. His 
claim, however, was discredited and all the honor came 
to Peary, who in March, 1911, was made a rear-ad- 
miral and retired from duty. It is of interest to state 
that the South Pole, the other extremity of the earth's 
axis, has since been reached by two discoverers. Cap- 
tain Amundsen, a Norwegian, on December 17, 1911, 
and Captain Scott, an Englishman (who perished dur- 
ing his return), on January 18, 1912. 

832; New States Admitted. — In June, 1910, provision 
was made by Congress for the admission to the Union 
of Arizona and New Mexico. An effort had previously 



424 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

been made to combine them into a single State, but 
this had failed. State Constitutions having been 
adopted by these Territories, a resolution for their 
admission was passed by Congress in August, 1911, 
and their admission to the Union was proclaimed by 
the President early in 1912. 

833. Conservation of Natural Resources .—During the 
latter part of the Roosevelt Administration much atten- 
tion was paid to the subject of preserving for the bene- 
fit of the people such great natural resources as the 
forests, waters, and mines, and this laudable purpose 
was continued during the Taft Administration. Much 
of this wealth .of nature had fallen into the hands of 
private persons and been wastefully used, and others 
were seeking to gain possession of the coal beds recently 
found in Alaska and of the streams capable of yielding 
water-power. Against these there had arisen a strong 
force of public opinion, and in consequence a broad area 
of forests, mines and water-power sites have been with- 
drawn from settlement, the purpose of the government 
being to hold these for the benefit of the people at large. 

834. Woman Suffrage .—The States which had given 
previous to 1912 the full powder of voting to women 
were Wyoming, Colorado, Idaho, Utah and Washing- 
ton. Early in 1912 California was added to the list, 
and in the November election of that year three new 
States were gained, Arizona, Kansas and Oregon, and 
two in 1914, Nevada and INIontana, making eleven in all. 
Alaska Territory granted woman suffrage in 1912, also 
Illinois, so far as its constitution permitted. 

835. The Election of 1912.— The Presidential election 
of 1912 was hotly contested. President Taft was 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 425 

re-nominated by the Republican party and Woodrow 
Wilson, Governor of New Jersey, was chosen as the 
Democratic candidate. Ex-President Roosevelt was 
also a candidate, and when he failed to receive a nomi- 
nation from the Republican convention his friends 
organized a new party which they named the Progres- 
sive, its platform containing various progressive con- 
ceptions. In the heat of the contest Roosevelt was 
shot by an insane opponent and narrowly escaped a 
fatal wound. The result of the election was a very 
laige electoral majority for Woodrow Wilson for Presi- 
dent and Thomas R. Marshall, Governor of Indiana, 
for Vice-president, they receiving 435 votes, while 
Roosevelt received 88, and Taft only 8. The popular 
vote, however, showed much less discrepancy. 

WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION! 

From 19J3 to — 

836. Wilson's Inaugural Address. — Woodrow Wilson 
w^as duly inaugurated as President on the 4th of March, 
1913, his being the first Democratic inauguration since 
1893, when Cleveland began his second term. His 
address on this occasion was brief but significant, as it 

1 Woodrow Wilson was born at Staunton, Virginia, Decem- 
ber 28, 185G. He graduated at Princeton College in 1879, took 
post-graduate courses at Virginia and Johns Hopkins Univer- 
sities, was Professor of Bryn Mawr College 1885-88; at Wes- 
leyan, 1888-90 ; at Princeton, 1890-1910; was elected Governor 
of Xew Jersey in 1910. He became noted as an able and 
earnest reformer and State economist, was made the Democratie 
candidate for President in June, 1912, and Avas elected President 
of the United States Xovember 5, 1912. He wrote a " History of 
the American People" and other historical and political works. 




426 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

avowed the purpose of setting a high standard of 
poHtical principle and making reform on broad Unes 
the purpose of his administration. In forming his 
Cabinet WilHam Jennings Bryan, who had been the 
Democratic candidate for President in 
three elections, was made Secretary 
of State. A new department of the 
executive government, the Depart- 
ment of Labor, was added, with 
William B. Wilson, an experienced 
labor leader, as its head. 

837. A New Tariff. — Congress was 
called into extra session in April, 
wooDRow WXL80N. jQjg^ ^^ couslder a revision of the 

tariff on Democratic lines, the Republican protective 
pohcy to be replaced by the Democratic one of "Tariff 
for revenue only." The recent election had given the 
Democratic party a majority in both Houses of Congress 
while the President was strongly in favor of low tariff 
rates. The debate continued until October, the bill, as 
finally passed, greatly reducing the rates and putting 
a large number of articles on the free list. Largely 
increased importations followed, giving rise in many 
minds to the fear that the new tariff would cause a 
serious depression in American manufactures. 

838. The Currency Question.— Another subject dealt 
with in the extra session was that of an improved 
banking and currency system. The National Banks 
had proved too individual in their action to fit them for 
dealing successfully with cases of financial depression. 
Co-ordination seemed necessary, and a measure was 
adopted which provided for a series of Federal Reserve 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 427 

Banks. It was decided that these should be twelve in 
number, each the centre of a large financial district. 
They were to serve as places of deposit for govern- 
ment funds and the National Banks w^ere required to 
contribute to them a portion of their capital. They 
were opened under a government Board of Supervision 
on November 16, 1914. 

839. The Mexican Trouble. — A revolutionary move- 
ment in Mexico had existed for several years, one 
president being driven into exile, a second deposed and 
murdered, and a third had usurped the office. President 
Wilson refused to recognize the latter as a rightful 
president, and a large force of troops and war ships 
was sent to the border to protect the lives and interests 
of Americans. An insult to the American flag in April, 
1914, led to a powerful fleet of battleships being sent to 
demand redress. This being refused, the port of Vera 
Cruz was seized and held for several months. 

840. Political Movements. — In the period under review 
a series of new political principles had made rapid 
progress in the United States. Two of these were 
known as the Initiative and Referendum. The Ini- 
tiative gave the people the right to propose laws 
upon which the legislatures were required to act. The 
Referendum gave them the right to accept or reject laws 
passed by the legislatures. These innovations were 
favorably acted upon by many of the States. A third 
principle, the Recall, which gave the right to dismiss 
from office officials whose acts gave offence to the 
community, was adopted in a number of cities and in 
two States, California and Arizona. Government of 
cities by a commission of business men, five or more 



428 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

in number, was also strongly approved, and by 1914 
had been adopted in nearly three hundred cities. The 
State of Illinois was added to those in which women 
were given the right to vote at general elections. This 
raised the number of Woman Suffrage States to twelve. 

841. California and Japan. — An important political 
event of this period was a law passed by the legislature of 
California to prevent the purchase of land by Japanese 
and to limit their term of renting land to three years. 
Arizona passed a similar law. These acts caused much 
excitement in Japan, where the people declared that 
such laws were unjust to their country. The President 
and Secretary of State requested the Governor of Cali- 
fornia not to sign this bill, but he insisted on doing so, 
saying that the action of Japanese immigrants in his 
State had rendered such a law necessary. 

842. The San Francisco Exposition. — The completion 
of the Panama Canal was celebrated by a World's Fair 
in San Francisco in 1915, named the Panama-Pacific 
Exposition, in size and cost the greatest ever held. It 
covered a space of 635 acres along San Francisco Bay, 
being two miles in length and extending back half a 
mile. The principal buildings were of handsome Oriental 
type in architecture. Despite the war in Europe, which 
cut off some of the leading nations from the display, 
it was very attractive, was largel}' attended, and was 
highly commended. The total cost was estimated at 
over $50,000,000. An exposition on a smaller scale, 
the Panama-California, was held in San Diego, Cali- 
fornia, at the same time, and had various interesting 
and spectacular features. 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 429 

SUMMARY OF EVENTS. 

The War with Spain. — Conditions in Cuba — how the United 
States became involved — important events in the West Indies and in 
the PhiHppines — taking of Porto Rico — results — terms of the treaty. 

1901-1904. President Roosevelt favors Civil Service Reform. Cuba 
becomes a republic. The Department of Commerce and Labor formed. 
Boundary between Canada and Alaska settled. St. Louis holds a great 
Exposition. The Panama Canal is purchased from the French. A 
great coal strike settled in 1902. Roosevelt elected President in 1904. 

1905-1908. Expositions held at Portland, Oregon, in 1905, and 
Jamestown, Virginia, in 1907. Peace treaty between Russia and 
Japan signed at Portsmouth, N. H. Great earthquake at San Fran- 
cisco. Oklahoma becomes a State. Irrigation in the West begun by 
government. Battleship fleet sails around the world. William H. 
Taft elected President in 1908. 

1909-1913. President Taft calls extra session of Congress and new 
tariff biU passed. Exposition held at Seattle and centenary celebration 
at New York. Peary discovers the North Pole. Statehood voted for 
Arizona and New Mexico. Mines and water powers withdrawn from 
settlement for the benefit of the people. Woodrow Wilson elected 
President. 

1913- . President Wilson calls Congress into extra session to pass 
a tariff for revenue only. William J. Bryan made Secretarj- of State. 
A season of weather disasters. Japan offended by California. Federal 
Reserve Banks established. Revolution in Mexico. 

TOPICS FOR REVIEW. 
(Oral or Written.) 

The Tariff Problem. — Opposition to high tariff — tariff plank in 
Republican platform of 1908 — why tariff of 1909 failed to give satis- 
faction — tariff board and its purpose — Democratic success and "tariff 
for revenue only." 

Reform Movements. — Civil Service Reform — prosecution of trusts 
— government irrigation in the West — national parks and forest reser- 
vation — conservation of resources — woman suffrage — the currency 
problem. 

reference books. 

Wilson's History of the American People. Roosevelt's American 
Ideas. Fiske's American Political Ideas. 



PART XII 

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 



1. TERRITORIAL GROWTHS OF THE UNITED STATES 

Early Extent of Country. — At the outbreak of the 
Revolution the settled part of the colonies had gone 
little beyond the Allegheny range of mountains. 
Daniel Boone and some other explorers had crossed 
the mountains into Kentucky and Tennessee and others 
had gone down the Ohio River, but the great body 
of the people dwelt between the mountains and the 
sea. Yet there was no fixed western limit to the 
colonies. 

The United States in 1783.— The Western limit was 
first fixed in the treaty made with Great Britain in 1783, 
after the Revolutionary War. In this treaty the Missis- 
sippi River was made the boundary of the country on 
the west, the Atlantic Ocean on the east, the great lakes 
and the border line of Canada on the north, and the 
Spanish territory of Florida on the south. This was not 
the Florida marked on the maps of to-day, for Spanish 
Florida extended westward to the Mississippi, so that 
the United States was cut off from the Gulf of Mexico. 
The area of the country at that date was 709,050 square 
miles. 

The Louisiana Purchase. — In 1803 a treaty with 
France added to this country the great Louisiana 
territory, extending from the Mississippi River to the 
Rocky Mountains, with an area of 875,025 square miles. 

430 



TERRITORIAL GROWTHS 431 

The price paid France for this great region, which more 
than doubled the size of the country, was $15,000,000. 
It took in part of Spanish Florida, so that our country 
now extended to the Gulf of Mexico. 

The Florida Purchase. — Florida was purchased from 
Spain in 1819, at the price of $5,000,000. The area 
obtained was 70,107 square miles. This gave a com- 
plete Gulf of Mexico boundary. 

Annexation of Texas. — In 1836 Texas gained its 
freedom from Mexico. In 1845 it was annexed by the 
United States. The new area acquired was 389,795 
square miles. 

Accessions from Mexico. — The treaty signed in 1848, 
after the war with Mexico, gave this country all the 
northern section of that country, stretching from Texas 
to the Pacific Ocean. The area gained was 523,802 
square miles. For this Mexico received $18,250,000. 

Gadsden Purchase. — To settle a boundary dispute, 
another piece of territory was purchased from Mexico 
in 1853. This extended through southern Arizona and 
New Mexico from the Colorado River to the Rio 
Grande. The area was 36,211 square miles; the price 
paid was $10,000,000. 

The Oregon Accession. — The Oregon country, lying 
between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, 
became a subject of dispute between the United States 
and Great Britain after 1840. The question was settled 
in 1846, the United States obtaining that portion of the 
country south of 49° N. latitude. The area acquired 
was 288,689 square miles. This completed the con- 
tinuous region of the United States and gave it a total 
area of 3,092,679 square miles. 



432 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 

Alaska Purchased.— In 1SG7 Russia sold to the 
United States its territory in Northwestern Ameiiea, 
then known as Russian America, since known as 
Alaska. The price paid was S7, 200, 000; the area is 
599,446 square miles. 

Later Acquisitions. — In 1S98 the island group of 
Hawaii, G740 square miles in area, was annexed by the 
United States. In the same year the islands of Porto 
Rico and Guam were ceded by Spain; areas 3600 and 
175 square miles. In 1899 the Philippine Islands, 
143,000 square miles, were ceded by Spain, $20,000,000 
being paid. These, with some smaller islands, make a 
total area of 3,846,595 square miles. 

2. POPULATION AND SLAVERY 

Sources of Population. — The original population of 
the United States came from five nations of Europe: 
Great Britain, France, Spain, Holland, and Sweden. 
The great bulk of the people were English. Later 
immigrants in the colonial period came from Scotland, 
Ireland, and Germany. Also many negroes were 
brought from Africa, and sold as slaves. It is believed 
that in 1689 there were about 200,000 people in this 
country; in 1750, about 1,100,000; in 1776, about 
2,500,000. In 1790 the first census gave a population 
of 3,929,214. This had increased by 1910 to 91,972,267 
(exclusive of Alaska and the new islands). 

Immigration. — The great growth during the nine- 
teenth century has been largely due to immigration, 
which has come in from all parts of Europe, also from 
China and Japan. The immigrants have steadily in- 
creased in number. In the thirty years 1790 to 1820 



POPULATION AND SLAVERY 433 

there were about 260,000; in the thirty years 1820 to 
1850 about 2,500,000; in the ten years 1900 to 1910 
about 8,800,000. The total number of immigrants 
1790 to 1910 is estimated at about 28,000,000. 

City Growth. — The largest city in 1790 was Phila- 
delphia, with 42,520; New York having 33,131, and 
Boston 18,038. The size of the cities has enormously 
increased, there being now three cities, New York, 
Chicago, and Philadelphia, with over 1,000,000 each, 
and five others with over 500,000 each; New York 
stands at the head, with 4,766,883, being the second 
city in size in the world. 

Slavery Introduced. — The first slaves in the United 
States were twenty negroes brought to Jamestown, 
Virginia, in 1619, and sold to the colonists. The system 
extended until every colony had slaves. Oglethorpe 
tried to keep them out of Georgia but failed. They 
were kept in the colonies of the North, but were never 
numerous there, as they were used chiefly as house 
servants and were of less use than in the South, where 
they were employed in the tobacco, rice, and indigo 
fields, and later in the cotton field. 

Growth of Slavery.— By 1740 about 130,000 negroes 
had been brought to this country. In 1776 there were 
probably 500,000 here. In 1790 there were 657,000 in 
the South and 40,300 in the North. Every State had 
them except Massachusetts. In New York there were 
more than 20,000. They continued to be brought 
to this country from Africa until 1808, when the 
slave-trade came to an end. It had been fixed in 
the Constitution that the slave-trade should end at 
this date. 

28 



434 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 

Objections to Slavery. — As early as 1700 there were 
many who wanted the slaves set free. • The rapid 
increase in the slave population was due to England, 
not to America, Many laws were passed in the colonies 
to restrict the slave-trade, but it was profitable to 
merchants engaged in that trade and the British 
government forced the colonists to accept the slaves 
sent them. 

Freeing the Northern Slaves. — In 177G Congress 
resolved "that no slave should be imported into any 
of the thirteen united colonies." This decree was 
not carried out. Soon after the people of the North 
began to pass laws abolishing slavery. This was done 
by Vermont in 1777, Massachusetts in 1780, and New 
Hampshire in 1783. Pennsylvania provided for grad- 
ual abolition in 1780, Rhode Island and Connecticut 
in 1784, New York in 1799, and New Jersey in 1804. 
This abolished slavery as an institution in all the States 
north of the Mason and Dixon line. But many who 
had been slaves before the decrees of abolition remained 
so until their death. 

The Cotton Fields. — Slavery was not popular in the 
South up to 1793. The invention of the cotton gin in 
that year made it popular. After that it became 
profitable to raise cotton and the negro slaves were 
very useful in the cotton fields. So from that time on 
there was nothing said about freeing the slaves. 

The Missouri Compromise. — ^The purchase of the 
Louisiana territory in 1803 opened a new slavery 
question. Slavery had been forbidden in the territory 
north of the Ohio in 1787. Should it be admitted in 
this new territory west of the Mississippi? This ques- 



POPULATION AND SLAVERY 435 

tion was settled in 1820 by the law known as the Mis- 
souri Compromise. Under this law Missouri was ad- 
mitted to the Union as a slave State, but all new States 
north of the parallel of 36° 30' were to be free States. 

The Abolition Movement. — A demand for the aboli- 
tion of slavery began in the North about 1830. At 
first it was strongly opposed and those who advocated 
it were in danger of their lives. But the feeling grew, 
and after 1840 many abolition societies were formed. 
This sentiment was aided by the book called "Uncle 
Tom's Cabin," published in 1852. Millions of people 
read this book and many of them became strong 
opponents of slavery. 

Later Events. — Many slaves ran away from their 
masters to the North and were helped by abolitionists 
to make their way to Canada. This was called the 
''Underground Railroad," and it caused much bitter 
feeling in the South. 

In 1854 an act was passed by Congress giving the 
settlers of the Territory of Kansas the right to decide 
whether this should be admitted as a free or a slave 
State. This was a repeal of the Missouri Compromise, 
for Kansas was north of the boundary fixed. Many 
fights took place between the settlers from the North 
and the South, but the Northern party won and 
slavery was forbidden. 

In 1857 there was a decision of the Supreme Court, 
known as the Dred-Scott Decision, which declared that 
slave owners might take their slaves into the free 
States and still hold them in slavery. This was op- 
posed in the North and added many to the abolition 
party. 



436 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 

In 1859 a raid was made on the United States 
arsenal at Harper's Ferry by an old abolitionist 
named John Brown, whose purpose was to excite the 
slaves of Virginia to rise in rebellion against their 
masters. This added greatly to the irritation of the 
South. 

Secession ai;d Emancipation. — In 1860 the success of 
the Republican party in electing Abraham Lincoln led 
to the secession of many States in the South and was 
followed by war between the North and South. Finally, 
on September 22, 1862, President Lincoln issued a 
proclamation declaring that all slaves in the States in 
rebellion against the government should be free on and 
after the 1st of January, 1863. This was followed in 
1865 by an amendment to the Constitution which set 
free all other slaves and put an end forever to slavery 
within the United States. A later amendment made 
the negroes full citizens of the country, with the right 
of voting. 

3. POLITICAL PARTIES 

The Early Parties. — The people of the United States 
have been divided in opinions from the start. There 
were Whigs and Tories during the Revolution. The 
Tories were those who favored English rule. They 
were made to leave the country after the war. 

The Constitution of 1787 gave rise to two new 
parties. The Federal party favored the Constitution 
and a strong central government. This party ceased 
to exist after 1816. The Anti-Federal party opposed 
the Constitution and was in favor of strong State 
government'^ It ceased when the Constitution was 
adopted. 



POLITICAL PARTIES 437 

Democratic Party. — After the Constitution was ac- 
cepted all those opposed to a strong central govern- 
ment joined into a new party. This was named the 
Republican par.y by Thomas Jefferson, its leader. 
Democratic clubs were formed, and these in 1794-95 
joined with the Republican party, which now became 
known as the Democratic-Republican party. After 
1824 it became known as the Democratic party. As 
such it still exists. It favors State rights and opposes 
high duties on imported goods. From 1816 to 1828 
there was only this one party in the United States. 

The Whig Party.— In 1828 a party called the National 
Republican was formed, which after 1836 became 
known as the Whig party. It elected two Presidents, 
but ceased to exist in the North after 1850. In the 
South the name was retained until 1860. 

Minor Parties. — The Liberty party, generally known 
as the Anti-Slavery party, was formed in 1839. This 
was merged in 1848 into the Free-Soil party, which 
opposed the extension of slavery to the Territories. 
In 1835 was formed the American party, called the 
Know-Nothing party, from the secrecy of its members. 
It opposed office-holding by foreigners, but died out 
after a few years. 

The Republican Party. — In 1856 all these organiza- 
tions were merged into a new one, which took the name 
of the Republican party. It advocated a high tariff, 
a strong central government, and the non-extension 
of slavery. This and the Democratic continue the two 
leading parties of the country. 

Later Parties. — In 1869 a Temperance party was 
formed, opposed to the manufacture and sale of intoxi- 



438 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 

eating liquors. A Greenback party was formed in 1876, 
favoring an unlimited issue of '' greenbacks," or govern- 
ment paper money. The People's party, formed in 

1891, usually called the Populist, absorbed several 
earlier labor organizations. The Socialist, dating from 

1892, cast a strong vote in 1912, and in that year a 
new party, the Progressive, was formed, based on ideas 
of progress in governmental conditions. 

4. TRANSPORTATION AND NEWS SENDING 

Colonial Travel. — In early colonial times people did 
not often leave their homes, travel being very difficult. 
For those who lived along the rivers or on the seaboard, 
boats and ships were used by travellers, but inland the 
roads were few and very poor and those who went 
about did so on foot or horseback. Wagons were used 
by farmers, and in Pennsylvania, where there were 
some better roads, the famous Conestoga wagons — 
large, canvas-covered vehicles drawn by six horses — 
were used to carry farm produce and freight. There 
were thousands of these in use, but carriages were not 
used until about 1750 and few of them until after the 
Revolution. 

Stage Travel. — At first a wagon running twice a week 
between Philadelphia and New York carried all the 
travel between these two cities. The wagons often 
stuck in the mud and had to be pulled out by the 
passengers. The first regular stage line was from 
Boston to Providence. It took two days. In 1789 the 
stages between Boston and New York took a week. 
There were no bridges and large streams had to be 
crossed in boats. 



TRANSPORTATION AND NEWS SENDING 439 

The Erie Canal. — A few canals were made for the 
carriage of goods, the greatest of these being the 
famous Erie Canal between Buffalo and Albany, New 
York, a distance of 363 miles. This took eight years 
to build and was finished in 1825. Before it was built 
it took three weeks and cost ten dollars to carry a barrel 
of flour from Buffalo to Albany. By the canal this 
would be done in a week at a cost of thirty cents. 

The Steamboats. — The steamboat had been put on 
many of the rivers before this time. The first success- 
ful boat was that of Robert Fulton, put on the Hudson 
River in 1807. In 1811 the first steamboat was put 
on the Ohio, and in a few years there were many of 
them on the w^estern rivers. Before many years steam- 
ships were crossing the Atlantic, but they were rude 
affairs compared with the great and splendid steam- 
ships now in use. 

The Railroad. — The first railroads built in this coun- 
try used horses to draw the cars, locomotives not 
being made until 1829. The first American-built loco- 
motive was used in 1830, on the Baltimore and Ohio 
Railroad. In that year, there were only twenty-three 
miles of railroad in the United States. There are now 
about 250,000 miles, and travellers can go from 
New York to San Francisco quicker than they could 
from New York to Boston in colonial days. As for 
the passengers carried, there are probably more than 
a million to-day to one a century ago. 

Travel and News Carriage. — The street railway, with 
cars moved by electricity, is taking the place of horses 
for general travel in all the cities of our land, and the 
automobile is also replacing the horse for wealthier 



440 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 

travellers. The latest mode of travel is that by air- 
ships, or flying machines, which perhaps may be of 
much use in the future. The first mail route in this 
country for the carriage of letters was started in 1672 
between New York and Boston. It made the round 
trip once a month. In 1729 the mail between Phila- 
delphia and New York went out once a week in summer 
and once a fortnight in winter. The mails were carried 
by men on horseback, their saddle-bags holding the 
few letters sent. In 1790 there were only seventy-five 
post offices in the country; there are now more than 
fifty-eight thousand. 

Rates of Postage. — In 1792 eight cents was charged 
for a letter going less than forty miles, ten cents for 
one less than ninety miles, and so on. Two sheets were 
charged double rates. In 1845 postage was made five 
cents for distances up to 300 miles, ten cents for greater 
distances. In 1851 it was made three cents if under 
3000 miles, six cents if over that distance. In 1863 it 
was made three cents to all parts of the country, in 
1883 two cents for a half-ounce letter, and in 1885 two 
cents for an ounce letter; in 1908 postage to Great 
Britain was lowered to two cents per ounce, and on 
January 1, 1909, to Germany. A Parcels Post system, 
for the carriage of small packages, was added in 1913. 

The Telegraph. — After 1844 the electric telegraph 
afforded a far more rapid means of sending news. The 
first line in this country, one between Baltimore and 
Washington, was opened in that year. There arc now 
more than two million miles of telegraph wire in use 
in this country and thousands of miles under the ocean 
to all parts of the world. And it has been learned that 



INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 441 

messages can be sent across the ocean without the use 
of wires and for long distances from ship to ship at sea. 
Also by aid of the telephone, now widely in use, the 
human voice can be clearly heard from New York to 
San Francisco, a distance of over 3000 miles. 

5. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 

Agriculture. — The art of farming has made wonder- 
ful progress in this country. In colonial times there 
was very little manufacture, this being forbidden by 
the British government, and most of the people were 
engaged in farming, raising corn, wheat, potatoes, and 
other food-plants in the North, and tobacco, rice, 
indigo, corn, and other plants in the South. 

In later years many other plants were added, sugar 
in Louisiana and cotton in all parts of the South. 
In our days very many food-plants are grown, and trop- 
ical fruits, such as the orange and lemon, are raised in 
large quantities and sent to all parts of the country. 

Agriculture has spread from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific, water from the streams has been made to flow 
over millions of acres in the rainless part of the West, 
and the value of the field products of our country has 
reached the great annual value of over $10,000,000,000. 
Of these the corn, wheat, and oat crops alone are worth 
nearly $3,500,000,000. 

Animals on Farms. — None of the farm animals of 
Europe were found in this country, the horse, ox, pig, 
and sheep being introduced by the early settlers. But 
they have increased in numbers until those now on 
our farms are worth more than $5,000,000,000. Also 
nearlv all the birds of the farm were brought here 



442 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 

from Europe, the turkey being the only American 
farm bird. 

Furs and Fisheries. — It was the furs and fisheries of 
this country that brought many of the early settlers 
here. The fishes of Newfoundland were so abundant 
that large fleets of fishermen crossed the ocean to 
those waters in very early times. The oyster fisheries 
were also very rich and extensive. None of these 
fisheries are nearly so rich now as they were in the 
past, but the new methods of fish-culture are beginning 
to restore the old abundance. Of late years the salmon 
fisheries of the Pacific Coast have added greatly to 
the supply. 

Fur-bearing animals were very abundant in America 
in colonial times, and the French of Canada went far 
through the wild forests in search of these animals. 
The Dutch of New York also spent most of their time 
in dealing with the Indians for furs. These animals 
have greatly decreased in this country and Alaska is 
now our principal field for furs. On the Alaskan islands 
the valuable fur-seal is found. 

Forestry. — In early times forests covered a great part 
of this country, but these have been cut down and 
burned until great part of them have disappeared. 
The growth is not enough now to supply the demand. 
To put a stop to this great waste the government has 
taken in charge many millions of acres of mountain 
woodlands, and several of the States are doing the same 
thing. Also the planting of trees by the people and the 
school-children is helping to restore our lost forests. 

Manufactures. — Few goods were made in this coun- 
try in colonial times. The British government passed 



INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 443 

severe laws against manufacture, and what little was 
done was largely within the farm-houses, where wool 
and flax were woven into cloth, and hats, shoes, furni- 
ture and farm tools were made. Manufacture began 
after the Revolution and became very active during 
the nineteenth century, until the United States be- 
came one of the greatest manufacturing countries of 
the world. Commerce also grew very active and the 
foreign trade of this country is now valued at more 
than 14,000,000,000. 

Mining Products.— No other country in the world 
equals this in the value of its mines. Its coal produc- 
tion is much the greatest anywhere known and the 
same may be said of its petroleum. It has also the 
richest copper mines, and its gold and silver product 
is very large. Iron is very abundant and the United 
States produces nearly half the iron and steel of the 
world. Lead and zinc are also plentiful, and there are 
many other valuable minerals. 

Conservation of Natural Resources.^The abundant 
mineral and forest wealth of the United States needs 
to be taken care of and its waste prevented, and this 
is what the government is now trying to do. The coal 
and petroleum mines in the public lands have been set 
aside to be used for the good of all the people; also 
much of the forest lands and the streams which can 
yield water-power. By doing this the government 
desires to conserve or save these valuable resources, 
to use them for the benefit of the people at large and 
put an end to the old wasteful methods. 



444 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 



6. IXVEXTORS AND THEIR IX\'EXTI0X3 

The people of the United States have surpassed 
those of any other country in the invention of labor- 
saving machines, some of those being of remarkable 
character and of the utmost importance. A list is 
here given of the most useful and ingenious of these 
machines, including some of foreign invention which 
have been developed in this country. 

The Steamboat. — The steamboat was one of the 
earliest of American inventions. As early as 1786 a 
steamboat was tried on the Potomac by James Rum- 
sey, of Maryland, and one in the same year on the 
Delaware, by John Fitch, of Connecticut. Fitch's 
boat was run on the Delaware until 1790. But the 
earliest successful inventor was Robert Fulton, of 
Pennsylvania, whose first boat, the Clermont, was run 
on the Hudson in 1807. Tliis invention caused a great 
development in river and ocean navigation. 

The Cotton Gin. — A machine to remove the seeds 
from the cotton fibre, invented by Eli Whitney in 
1793, was the second notable American invention. 
It brought great wealth to the Southern States, by 
enabling this work to be done very rapidly, so that 
cotton raising became profitable. By opening a great 
field for slave labor the cotton gin helped to make 
slavery a fixed institution. 

The Railroad. — The first effective locomotive was 
built by George Stephenson of England about 1828. 
The first locomotive built in this country was placed 
on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1830. The rail- 
road has had a much greater development in the 



INVENTORS AND THEIR INVENTIONS 445 

United States than in any other country and has 
enormously developed travel and the transportation 
of goods. 

The Electric Telegraph. — Seventy years ago the send- 
ing of news was a slow process. It became wonder- 
fully rapid after the electric telegraph was introduced 
by Samuel F. B. Morse. The first telegraph line ran 
from Baltimore to Washington and was opened in 
1844. Since then the telegraph has been extended 
over the whole world and is of the greatest value in the 
rapid sending of news. 

Harvesting Machines. — The reaping machine, in- 
vented by Cyrus H. McCormick in 1834, aided greatly 
in developing and peopling the great Mississippi Valley. 
There are now many other machines used on the farm, 
for mowing, seed-planting, threshing, and other pur- 
poses, and the work of the farmer, once very hard, 
has now become much easier. 

The Photograph. — The taking of pictures by sun- 
light was first made known by Daguerre, a French 
chemist, in 1839. Much of its w^onderful develop- 
ment has been due to American inventors. Interest- 
ing uses of the photograph are to make pictures for 
books and newspapers and for use in the popular moving 
pictures. 

The Sewing Machine. — This was invented by Elias 
Howe, of Massachusetts, and patented in 1841. Before 
that time all sewing had to be done slowly by hand. 
Now almost every house has this machine, by which 
sewing can be done very rapidly and neatly. 

Vulcanized Rubber. — India-rubber got its name from 
its use in rubbing out pencil marks. This was its chief 



446 STAGES OF DEVELOPIMENT 

use at first. Charles Goodyear, of Connecticut, about 
1840 learned how to make it hard by mixing sulphur 
with it. Since then it has become useful for very 
many purposes. 

Anaesthetics.— The first man to prevent pain in 
surgical operations was Dr. William Morton, a dentist 
of Boston. In 1846 he gave ether to one of his patients 
and made him insensible. Teeth could in this way be 
filled or pulled without pain. Other anaesthetics have 
since been discovered and the most terrible operations 
can now be performed while the patient is in a state 
like that of sleep. 

Printing Machines. — The best and fastest printing 
press was invented by Richard M. Hoe, of New York, 
about 1857. By it printing can be done on both sides 
of the paper at once, and many thousand sheets printed 
every hour. Type-setting machines have also been 
invented, the first by Ottman Morgenthaler in 1886. 
These machines have made reading matter of all kinds 
very cheap. 

The Ocean Telegraph Cable. — The first telegraph line 
under the ocean was laid by Cyrus W. Field, of New 
York, in 1858. This failed to work, but a successful 
one was laid in 1866. These cables now run under all 
seas and one learns every day what is happening in all 
parts of the world. 

The Electric Light. — The first useful arc-light was 
invented by Paul Jablochkoff, a Russian, in 1876. 
The incandescent light, now used in houses, was 
perfected by Thomas A. Edison in 1879. Our city 
streets at night now show how the electric light has 
developed. 



INVENTORS AND THEIR INVENTIONS 447 

The Telephone. — The wonderful talking telegraph, 
now in such common use, had more than one inventor, 
but the patent for it was given to Alexander G. Bell 
in 1870. By its use the human voice can be heard 
more than a thousand miles from the speaker. 

The Phonograph. — This is a remarkable talking 
machine, invented by Thomas A. Edison in 1878. In 
it the human voice seems to be put in storage to be 
given out again years afterward, if desired. 

Electrical Developments. — Other electrical develop- 
ments arc the following: The electric railway, first used 
in this country at Richmond, Virginia, in 1888, now 
in common use for street travel in all parts of the 
world. The dynamo, by which the force of steam or 
of falling water is converted into electricity and carried 
over many miles of wire, to move cars or machinery 
far away. The wireless telegraph, which enables mes- 
sages to be sent through the air without the use of 
wires. By its aid news can be sent to or received from 
ships when far at sea. 

The Steam Turbine. — Turbine wheels turned by 
water have long been used. Turbines moved by steam 
have come into use since 1880. They are now used 
instead of the old style of steam-engine in driving great 
steam-ships across the ocean at enormous speed. 

The Bicycle. — This is a two-wheeled travelling ma- 
chine moved by the feet. It came into common use 
about 1870 and was long very popular. It is now 
little used in its old form, but motor bicycles are in use. 

The Automobile. — A carriage moved by power- 
machines instead of horses. Steam and gasoline 
engines and electric batteries are used in moving it. 



448 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 

It came into use in France after 1890, and is now used 
in all countries and has become very popular. 

The Air=ship. — One of the latest important inven- 
tions is the air-ship. Flight in a cigar-shaped balloon 
moved by a power-engine was first successfully tried 
about 1895. The aeroplane, a kind of air-ship without 
a balloon to lift it, was first made successful by Wilbur 
and Orville Wright, of Ohio, in 1904. It has since then 
had a great development and many long and high 
flights have been made. 

7. FAMOUS AUTHORS OF AMERICA 

Colonial Writers. — There were many writers in 
colonial times, but few whose works are now read. 
Cotton Mather, who lived about 1700, wrote much on 
theological subjects. Jonathan Edwards did the same, 
but he was a much greater writer, and his book "The 
Freedom of the Will" has given him fame as a philos- 
opher. Benjamin Franklin is much the best known of 
colonial authors. His ''Autobiography" will long be 
read as a charming life story, and his "Poor Richard's 
Almanac " is full of bits of homely philosophy. 

Revolutionary Writers. — During the period of the 
Revolution the ablest writer was Thomas Paine, whose 
patriotic works, "The Crisis" and "Common Sense," 
did much to stir up the people and are still well worth 
reading. The statesmen Hamilton, Madison, and Jay 
wrote very able essays on political subjects, which were 
published in "The Federalist," and Washington's 
"Farewell Address" is regarded as one of our noblest 
state papers. 



FAMOUS AUTHORS OF AMERICA 449 

There were poets in this period, but most of their 
works is now forgotten. One of them was Francis 
Freneau, then a popular writer. Others were Francis 
Hopkinson, who wrote the humorous "Battle of the 
Kegs," and his son Joseph Hopkinson, author of our 
first national song "Hail Columbia." Patrick Henry's 
famous speeches are still very good reading. 

Later Writers. — After the nineteenth century came 
in able authors grew much more numerous. The first 
American novelist of any note, Charles Brockden 
Brown, wrote about this time, most of his novels being 
published before the beginning of the century. They 
were admired at the time, but no one now reads them. 
The first American to gain great fame as an author 
was Washington Irving, who wrote histories, biog- 
raphies, essays and tales. Among his best-known 
works is the amusing "Knickerbocker's History of 
New York," and the famous short stories "Rip Van 
Winkle" and "Sleepy Hollow." 

Novelists. — The first very popular American novel- 
ist was James Fenimore Cooper, well-known for his 
tales of sea and Indian life. Among the best of these 
are "The Pilot" and "The Last of the Mohicans." 
Next in time was Nathaniel Hawthorne, one of the 
ablest novelists of the century. "The Scarlet Letter" 
and "The Marble Faun" are two of his most-read works. 
The ablest and most original short-story writer of the 
century was Edgar Allen Poe, two of his best stories 
being "The Fall of the House of Usher" and "The Gold 
Bug." Another famous novelist of the period before 
the Civil War was Harriet Beecher Stowe, whose " Uncle 
Tom's Cabin" had a share in bringing on that war. 



450 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 

Poets. — In the era before the Civil War were a num- 
ber of able poets. Several of these are chiefly known 
by a single song each, Francis Scott Key by the "Star- 
Spangled Banner," Joseph Rodman Drake by "The 
American Flag," Fitz-Greene Halleck by "Marco 
Bozzaris," and Julia Ward Howe by "The Battle 
Hymn of the Republic." Other poets who wrote 
much and whose writings made them famous were 
William Cullen Bryant, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 
John Greenleaf Whittier, James Russell Lowell, Edgar 
Allen Poe, and Ralph Waldo Emerson. 

Historians. — Chief among the historians of the 
United States are George Bancroft, with his very able 
"History of the United States"; William Hickling 
Prescott, who wrote admirably about Mexico, Peru, 
and Spain; Washington Irving, who wrote "The 
Conquest of Grenada"; John Lathrop Motley, who 
dealt with the history of the Netherlands; Francis 
Parkman, whose works on the history of Canada are 
delightfully written; Charles Henry Lea, who wrote 
"Superstition and Force" and on other middle age 
subjects; and John Bach McMaster, whose "History 
of the People of the United States" is much admired. 

Authors in other Fields. — Among writers on other 
topics may be named the famous dictionary makers, 
Noah Webster and Joseph E. Worcester; Emerson, 
whose "Essays" have been greatly read and admired; 
Henry D. Thoreau, the first and one of the best of our 
writers on out-door life; Bayard Taylor, famous for 
his "Views Afoot" and other works; Edward Everett 
Hale, best known for his "Man Without a Country"; 
George William Curtis, a charming essay writer, and 



FAMOUS AUTHORS OF AMERICA 451 

Richard Henry Dana, author of "Two Years before 
the Mast." 

After the Civil War. — In this period the writers of 
the United States became so numerous that only a 
few of the best known names can be here given. Of 
the novelists may be named William Dean Howells, 
George W. Cable, Francis Bret Harte, Francis Marion 
Crawford, Frances Hodgson Burnett, Joel Chandler 
Harris, Frank Stockton, Mary Noailles Murfree, Henry 
James, and Louise May Alcott. 

The historians include John Fiske, Justin Winsor, 
John Foster Kirk and Alfred T. Mahon; the poets, 
Sidney Lanier, Richard Henry Stoddard, Thomas 
Bailey Aldrich, Walt Whitman, Edmund Clarence 
Stedman, John Hay, William Carleton, Eugene Field, 
James Whitcomb Riley and Joaquin Miller. 

The humorous writers include Samuel L, Clemens 
("Mark Twain"), most famous of them all; Charles F. 
Browne ("Artemus Ward"), Mary A. Dodge ("Gail 
Hamilton"), Robert J. Burdette, and various others. 
Those are only a few of the prominent names among 
recent authors. There are other able writers, but those 
above named are among the best. 

Periodical Literature. — Aside from books there is 
much American literature of a different kind. The 
first newspaper, the Boston "News Letter," appeared 
in 1704 ; Franklin founded the " Pennsylvania Gazette " 
in Philadelphia in 1729; the first daily paper, "The 
American Daily Advertiser," appeared in Philadelphia 
in 1784; the first one-cent daily, the "Daily Sun," in 
New York, in 1833. Since then newspapers have 
increased enormously, there being more than twenty- 



452 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 

four thousand separate newspapers, of various kinds, 
now published in this country. 

The first magazines were issued in the closing years 
of the eighteenth century. The oldest now existing, the 
"North American Review," began its career in 1815. 
To-day the country is flooded with magazines, many 
of them of great excellence and beautifully illustrated. 

Libraries. — Public libraries began in this country 
with the Philadelphia Library, founded by Dr. Frank- 
lin in the middle of the eighteenth century. Libraries 
are now found in every town and city, some of them 
are very large, and free libraries are very numerous. 
The largest is the Library of Congress, with nearly two 
million books and pamphlets. The Boston Public 
Library, with almost six hundred thousand books, 
comes next. The oldest private library is that of 
Harvard University, which began in 1638. 



GENERAL REVIEW 



I. TOPICS FOR ORAL DISCUSSION. 



1. Historical trees. 2. Louisiana Purchase. 3. The Venezuelar 
controversy. 4. " The Starving Time." 5. The Pilgrims. 6. The 
Puritans. 7. Historic buildings. 8. Mason and Dixon's Line. 9. The 
Grand Model. 10. The Navigation Acts. 11. The Cavaliers. 12 
Writs of Assistance. 13. Discovery of gold in CaUfornia. 14. The 
Mormons. 15. Bacon's Rebellion. 16. Pontiac's War, 17. Civil Ser 
vice. 18. Standard Time. 19. Dorr's Rebellion. 20. The Wilmot 
ProA-iso. 21. The Southern Confederacy. 22. Labor strikes. 23 
The Weather Bureau. 24. WTiat the Civil War settled. 25. Shay's 
Rebellion. 26. Carpet-Bag Government. 27. The Stamp Act. 28 
The Committee of Correspondence. 29. The Monroe Doctrine. 30 
Purchase of Alaska. 31. The Alabama Claims. 32. The Alien and 
Sedition Laws. 33. The Omnibus Bill or the Compromise of 1850. 
34. Annexation of Hawaii. 35. The French and Indian War. 36 
The Spanish-American War. 37. The Minute Men. 38. An incident 
of the Battle of Monmouth. 39. The President's Cabinet. 40. The 
Capitals of the United States. 41. Presidential succession. 42. 
Amendments to the Constitution. 43. The Spoils System. 44. Em- 
bargo Act. 45. Non-Intercourse Act. 46. Geneva Award. 47. Great 
Expositions or World's Fairs. 48. The Patroons. 49. Iving George's 
War. 50. Queen Anne's War. 51. War with Tripoli. 52. London 
Company. 53. The Plymouth Company. 54. War of 1812. 55. War 
with Mexico. 56. War with Algiers. 57. Missouri Compromise. 
58. Purchase of Florida. 59. The first four Presidents. 60. The last 
four Presidents. 61. Great disasters. 62. Portsmouth Peace Con- 
ference. 63. Jackson and the Nullifiers. 64. The Abolition Move- 
ment. 65. Annexation of Texas. 66. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 
67. John Brown's Raid. 68. The Dred Scott Decision. 69. The States 
that seceded. 70. Organization of the Confederate Government. 
71. First act of Civil War. 72. Compare the advantages possessed by 
the North and the South. 73. The first battle between iron-clad ves- 
sels. 74. Describe two great battles of the Civil War which were 
fought north of the Potomac River. 75. Dewey at Manila. 76. 
Schley at Santiago. 77. Causes of the assassination of three Presidents. 
78. The Emancipation Proclamation. 79. Impeachment of Andrew 
29 453 



454 GENERAL REVIEW 

Johnson. 80. The Sioux War. 81. The Electoral Commission. 82. 
Isthmian Canal. 83. When, where and by whom was each of the 
thirteen Colonies settled. 84. The Fountain of Youth. So. The Line 
of Demarcation. 

II. TOPICS FOR WHITTEN COMPOSITIONS. 

1. The Boston Tea Party. 2. The Salem Witchcraft. 3. Puritan 
Intolerance. 4. Paul Revere's Ride. 5. Expulsion of the Acadians. 
(Read Longfellow's Evangeline.) 6. Treason of Benedict Arnold. 
7. The Boston Massacre. 8. The Peculiar Customs of Early Inhabi- 
tants. 9. The American Indians, their past, present and future. 10. 
Modes of Travel in Early Times. 11. Improvement in the Lighting 
of Houses. 12. Religious Customs of Early Settlers. 13. The Inven- 
tive Genius of Americans. 14. America's Poets. 15. America's Prose 
Writers. 16. The Steamboat, Past and Present. 17. The Union of 
the Colonies. 18. Improved Postal Facilities. 19. United States' 
Money. 20. Improvement in the Means of Communication. 21. 
Means of Transportation in Early and Present Times. 

III. SUGGESTIVE DATES. 

PupUs are expected to tell what each date suggests. 
1000; Oct. 12, 1492; 1497; 1513; 1541; 1565; 1604; 1609; 1619; 
1621; 1682; 1754; 1765; 1770; Apr. 19, 1775; July 4, 1776; Oct. 
19, 1781; 17S7; 1789; 1803; 1812; 1820; 1832; 1846; 1848; 1850; 
Apr. 19, 1861; July, 1863; Apr. 9, 1865; Apr. 15, 1865; 1868; 1871; 
1881, 1889; 1898; 1906. 

IV. NAMES OF PLACES. 

Tell what each name suggests to you. 
1. Vinland. 2. Acadia. 3. Lexington. 4. Florida. 5. York- 
town. 6. Valley Forge. 7. Antietam. 8. Concord. 9. Monmouth. 
10. Bull Run. 11. Chippewa. 12. Detroit. 13. Harper's Ferry. 14. 
Buena Vista. 15. San Salvador. 16. Salem. 17. Chancellorsville. 
18. Gettysburg. 19. Bennington. 20. Quebec. 21. The Cowpens. 
22. Chickamauga. 23. New Amsterdam. 24. Iving's Mountain. 25. 
Appomattox. 26. Fredericksburg. 27. New Orleans. 28. Santiago. 
29. Manila. 30. Chattanooga. 31. Missionary Ridge. 32. Vicks- 
burg, 33. Mobile. 34. Richmond. 35. Petersburg. 36. Lookout 
Mountain. 



GENERAL REVIEW 455 



V. NAMES OF PERSONS. 

WTiat does each name suggest? 
1. Queen Isabella. 2. Sir Walter Raleigh. 3. John Smith. 4, 
Anne Hutchinson. 5. Mrs. Hannah Dustin. 6. George III. 7. Cap- 
tain Ividd. S. Roger Williams. 9. De Soto. 10. Paul Revere. 11. 
Wilham Penn. 12. La Salle. 13. Daniel Boone. 14. Alexander 
Hamilton. 15. Balboa. 16. Magellan. 17. Peter Stu\'\'esant. 18. 
Lafayette. 19. Robert Morris. 20. John Paul Jones. 21. George G. 
Meade. 22. Francis Scott Key. 23. Stonewall Jackson. 24. Maj. 
Andre. 25. Abraham Lincoln. 26. George Washington. 27. Aaron 
Burr. 28. Robert E. Lee. 29. James A. Garfield. 30. Robert Fulton. 
31. Ulysses S. Grant. 32. Thomas Jefferson. 33. Cyrus W. Field. 
34. Samuel Adams. 35. Admiral Scliley. 36. Thomas Edison. 37. 
Wm. Mclvinley. 38. Jefferson Davis. 39. John Hancock. 40.. 
George Dewey. 41. Philip H. Sheridan. 42. Henry Gay. 43. Daniel 
Webster. 44. Patrick Henry. 45. Henry Hudson, 46. Massasoit. 
47. Iving Phihp. 48. Marquette. 49. Peter IVIiuuit. 50. Sergeant 
Jasper. 51. The Hessians. 52. Benjamin Franklin. 53. Benedict 
Arnold. 54. Winfield Scott. 55. George B. McClellan. 56. Admiral 
Farragut. 57. Major Anderson. 58. James Buchanan. 

VI. QUOTATIONS. 

Tell all you can about each. 
1. " It is aU over." 2. " Don't fire tiU you see the whites of their 
eyes." 3. " We must beat them back to-day, or Betty Stark is a 
widow." 4. "Don't give up the ship." 5. "We have met the enemy 
and they are ours." 6. " Don't tread on me." 7. " I don't know." 
8. " Free-trade and sailors' rights." 9. " Thomas Jefferson stiU sur- 
vives." 10. " Remember the Alamo." 11. " Liberty and union, one 
and inseparable, now and forever." 12. " Caesar had his Brutus, 
Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third may profit by 
their example." 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 



When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for 
one iDeople to dissolve the pohtical bands which have connected 
them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, 
the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of 
nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of man- 
kind requires that they should declare the causes which impel 
them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created 
equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalien- 
able rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of 
happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are insti- 
tuted among men, deri\'ing their just jDowers from the consent of 
the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes 
destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or 
to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its founda- 
tion on such princiiDles, and organizing its powers in such form, 
as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happi- 
ness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long estab- 
lished should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, 
accordingly, all experience hath shown, that mankind are more 
disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right them- 
selves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. 
But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invari- 
ably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under abso- 
lute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such 
government, and to provide new guards for their future security. 
Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is 
now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former 
systems of government. The history of the present king of Great 
Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all ha\'ing 
m direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these 
Stateii To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world: 

i 



ii THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and neces- 
sary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his 
assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly 
neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
representation in the legislature ; a right inestimable to them, and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public 
records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance 
with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, 
with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; 
the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers 
of invasion from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; 
for that purpose, obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreign- 
ers; refusing to pass others to encourage . their migration hither, 
and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure 
of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, 
without the consent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and 
superior to, the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction 
foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; 
giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation: 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE iii 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these 
States : 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent: 

For depriving us, 'm many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: 

For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended 
offenses : 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and 
enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example 
and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these 
colonies : 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable 
laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments: 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves 
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abcUcated government here, by declaring us out of his 
protection and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercen- 
aries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, 
already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely 
paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the 
head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the 
high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the execu- 
tioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their 
hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has 
endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless 
Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished 
destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress, 
in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been 
answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is 



iv THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to 
be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. 
We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their 
legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We 
have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and 
settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and 
magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the ties of our 
common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would 
inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, 
too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. 
We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces 
our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, 
enemies in war, in peace friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of 
America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme 
Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the 
name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, 
solemnly publish and declare. That these United Colonies are, 
and of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they 
are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all 
political connection between them and the State of Great Britain 
is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and inde- 
pendent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, 
contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts 
and things which independent States may of right do. And, 
for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the 
protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other 
our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

John Hancock. 

New Hampshire. — Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, 
Matthew Thorntox. 

Massachusetts Bay. — Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert 
Treat Paixe, Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island. — Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. 

Connecticut. — Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, Wil* 
UAM Williams, Oliver Wolcott. 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE v 

New York. — William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis 
Lewis, Lewis Morris. 

New Jersey. — Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. 

Pennsylvania — Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin 
Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George 
Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. 

Delaware. — Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas IMcKean. 

Maryland. — Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, 
Charles Carroll of Carrollton. 

Viitgiiiia. — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas 
Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Francis 
Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. 

North Carolina. — William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John 
Penn. 

South Carolina. — Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, 
Thomas Lynch, Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia. — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE 
UNITED STATES 



We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more 
perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, 
provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, 
and secure the blessings of liberty for ourselves and our posterity, 
do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States 
of America. 

ARTICLE I. 

Section I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested 
in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Sen- 
ate and House of Representatives. 

Section II. 1. The House of Representati^'es shall be composed 
of members chosen every second year by the people of the several 
States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications 
requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State 
Legislature. 

2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have 
attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a 
citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be 
an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
the several States which may be included within this Union, accord- 
ing to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by 
adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound 
to ser\'ice for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, 
three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be 
made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress 
of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten 
years, in such a manner as they shall by law direct. The number of 
Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, 
but each State shall have at least one Representative; and until 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES vii 

such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire 
shall be entitled lo choose 3; Massachusetts, 8; Rhode Island and 
Province Plantations, 1; Connecticut, 5; New York, 6; New 
Jersey, 4; Pennsylvania, 8; Delaware, 1; Maryland, 6; Virginia, 
10; North Carolina, 5; South Carolina, 5, and Georgia 3.' 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any 
State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election 
to fill such vacancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and 
other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Section III. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be 
composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Leg's- 
lature thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence 
of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into 
three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be 
vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class 
at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the 
expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every 
second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise, 
during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive 
thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting 
of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to 
the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that 
State for which he shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice President of the United States shall be President of 
the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a Presi- 
dent pro tempore in the absence of the Vice President, or when he 
shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachment. 
When sitting for that purpose they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried the Chief Justice 

'See Article XIV., Amendments. 



viii THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the con- 
currence of two-thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further 
than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy- 
any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the 
party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indict- 
ment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

Section IV. 1. The times, places, and manner of holding 
elections for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in 
each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at 
any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the 
places of choosing Senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and 
such meeting shall be on the first Monday of December, unless the}"" 
shall by law appoint a different day. 

Section V. 1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, 
returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority 
of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller 
number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to 
compel the attendance of absent members in such manner and 
under such penalties as each House may provide. 

2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, 
punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concur- 
rence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their 
judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members 
of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth 
of those present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without 
the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to 
any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section VI. 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive 
a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid 
out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, 
except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from 
arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ix 

Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any 
speech or debate in either House they shall not be questioned in 
any other place. 

2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which 
he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority 
of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emolu- 
ments whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and 
no person holding any office under the United States shall be a 
member of either House during his continuance in office. 

Section VII. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in 
the House of Representatives; but the Senate may projDose or 
concur with amendments as on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Represen- 
tatives and the Senate shall, before it becomes a law, be presented 
to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign 
it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to the House in 
which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at 
large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such 
reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the 
bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, 
by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by 
two-thirds of that House it shall become a law. But in all such 
cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and 
nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill 
shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If 
any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days 
(Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the 
same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless 
the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which 
case it shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of 
the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except 
on a question of adjournment), shall be presented to the President 
of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall 
be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be re- 
passed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill, 



X THE CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES 

Section VIII. The Congress shall have power: 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay 
the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare 
of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be 
uniform throughout the United States; 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform 
laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign 
coin, and fix the standard of weight and measures; 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities 
and current coin of the United States; 

7. To establish post-ofhces and post-roads; 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by secur- 
ing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive rights 
to their respective writings and discoveries; 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on 
the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and 
make rules concerning captures on land and water; 

12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money 
to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 

13. To provide and maintain a navy; 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the 
land and naval forces; 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws 
of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; 

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the 
militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed 
in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respec- 
tively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training 
the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, 
over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xi 

cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become 
the seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise 
Hke authority over all places purchased by the consent of the 
Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, 'for the erection 
of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful build- 
ings; and 

18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, 
or in any department or officer thereof. 

Section IX. 1. The migration or importation of such persons 
^s any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall 
not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand 
eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such 
importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
pended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public 
safety may require it. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in pro- 
portion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be 
taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any 
State. 

6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce 
or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another; nor 
shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, 
or pay duties in another. 

7. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury but in conse- 
quence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement 
and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money 
shall be published from time to time 

8. No title of nobihty shall be granted by the United States; 
and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, 
without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolu- 
ment, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, 
or foreign State. 

28 



xii THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

Section X. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliancp, 
or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin 
money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver 
coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex 
post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or 
grant any title of nobility. 

2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any 
impost or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso- 
lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net 
I^roduce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports 
or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States; 
and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of 
the Congress. 

3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any 
duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter 
into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign 
power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such im- 
minent danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. 
Section I. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a Presi- 
dent of the United States of America. He shall hold his office 
during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice President, 
chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature 
thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole num- 
ber of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be 
entitled in the Congress; but no Senator or Representative, or 
person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, 
shall be appointed an elector. 

3. [The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote 
by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an 
inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall 
make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes 
for each, which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed 
to the seat of the Government of the United States, directed to 
the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xiii 

the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all 
the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person 
having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such 
number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; 
and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an 
equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall 
immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if 
no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list 
the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in 
choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the 
representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for 
this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds 
of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary 
to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the 
person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall 
be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more 
who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot 
the Vice President.] ^ 

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, 
and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall 
be the same throughout the United States. 

5. Xo person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the 
United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, 
shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person 
be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of 
thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the 
United States. 

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties 
of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and 
the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, 
resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice President, 
declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer 
shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President 
shall be elected. 

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a 



iThis clause is superseded by Article XII., Amendments, 



xiv THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished 
during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall 
not receive within that period any other emolument from the 
United States, or any of them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation: "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) 
that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United 
States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and 
defend the Constitution of the United States." 

Section II. 1. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of 
the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the 
several States, when called into the actual service of the United 
States; he may require the opinion, in A\Titing, of the principal 
officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject 
relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have 
power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the 
United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of 
the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators 
present concur; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice 
and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public 
ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other 
officers of the United States whose appointments are not herein 
otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; 
but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior 
officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts 
of law, or in the heads of departments. 

3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that 
may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting com- 
missions which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Section III. He shall from time to time give to the Congress 
information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their 
consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and 
expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both 
Houses, or either of them, and, in case of disagreement between 
them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn 
them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive am- 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xv 

bassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the 
laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers 
of the United States. 

Section IV. The President, \\ce President, and all civil 
officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on im- 
peachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high 
crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III. 

Section I. The judicial power of the Urtited States shall be 
vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the 
Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, 
both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices 
during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their 
services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their 
continuance in office. 

Section II. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in 
law and equity arising under this Constitution, the laws of the 
United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under 
their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public 
ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime 
jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall 
be a party ; to controversies between two or more States ; between 
a State and citizens of another State; between citizens of different 
States; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under 
grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, 
and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme 
Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before 
mentioned the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction 
both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such 
regulations, as the Congress shall make. 

3. The trial of rll crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall 
be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said 
crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within 
any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress 
may by law have directed. 



xvi THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

Section III. 1. Treason against the United States shall con- 
sist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their ene- 
mies, giving them aid and comfort. Xo person shall be convicted 
of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same 
overt act, or on confession in open com-t. 

2. The Congress shall have jDower to declare the punishment 
of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of 
blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. 

Section I. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State 
to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other 
State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner 
in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and 
the effect thereof. 

Section II. 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to 
all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

2. A person charged in any State ■\\ath treason, felony, or other 
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 
shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which 
he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having juris- 
diction of the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the 
laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any 
law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor 
but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such 
service or labor may be due. 

Section III. 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress 
into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected mthin 
the jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be formed by the 
junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the 
consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of 
the Congress. 

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all 
needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 
property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this 
Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the 
United States, or of any particular State. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xvu 

Section IV. The United States shall guarantee to every State 
in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect 
each of them against invasion; and, on application of the Legis- 
lature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be con- 
vened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. 
The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on 
the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several 
States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, 
in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of 
this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths 
of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, 
as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by 
the Congi'ess: Provided, that no amendment which may be made 
prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in 
any manner affect the first and fourth clauses of the ninth section 
of the first article; and that no State, -ndthout its consent, shall 
be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI. 

1 . All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the 
adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United 
States under this Constitution as under the Confederation. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which 
shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which 
shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be 
the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shaU 
be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any 
State to the contrary notwithstanding. 

3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and 
judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several 
States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Con- 
stitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a ciualifica- 
tion to any office or public trust under the United States. 



xviii THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 



ARTICLE VII. 

The ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be 
sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the 
States so ratifying the same. 

Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States 
present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord 
one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Indepen- 
dence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness 
whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

George Washington, 
President, and Deputy from Virginia. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

John Langdon, 
Nicholas Oilman. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Nathaniel Gorham, 
Rufus King. 

CONNECTICUT. 

William Samuel Johnson, 
Roger Sherman. 

NEW YORK. 

Alexander Hamilton. 

NEW JERSEY. 

William Livingston, 
David Brearley, 
William Paterson, 
Jonathan Dayton. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Benjamin Franklin, 
Thomas Mifflin, 
Robert Morris, 
(icorge Clymer, 
Thomas Fitzsimons, 
Jared Ingersoll, 
James Wilson, 
Gouverneur Morris. 

Attest: 



DELAW^\RE. 

George Read, 
Gunning Bedford, 
John Dickinson, 
Richard Bassett, 
Jacob Broom. 

MARYLAND. 

James McHenry, 

Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, 

Daniel Carroll. 

VIRGINIA. 

John Blair, 
James Madison. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

William Blount, 
Richard Dobbs Spaight, 
Hugh Williamson. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

John Rut ledge, 
Charles C. Pinckney, 
Charles Pinckney, 
Pierce Butler. 

GEORGIA. 

William Few, 
Abraham Baldwin. 

William Jackson, Secretary. 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION 



ARTICLE I. 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of 
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the 
freedom of speech or of the press ; or the right of the people peace- 
ably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of 
grievances. 

ARTICLE 11. 

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a 
free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not 
be infringed. 

ARTICLE III. 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, 
without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a 
manner to be prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV. 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, 
shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable 
cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describ- 
ing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand 
jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the 
militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; 
nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice 
put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any crim- 
inal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, 



XX AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION 

liberty, or property, without clue process of law; nor shall private 
property be taken for public use without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI. 
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to 
a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and 
district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which 
district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be 
informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be con- 
fronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory proc- 
ess for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance 
of counsel for his defence. 

ARTICLE VII. 
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, 
and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any 
court of the United States, than according to the rules of the 
common law. 

ARTICLE VIII. 
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, 
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX. 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not 
be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X. 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu- 
tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States 
respectively, or to the people. 

ARTICLE XL 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted 
against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or 
by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION xxi 

ARTICLE XII. 

The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, 
shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; 
they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, 
and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice President ; and 
they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President 
and of all persons voted for as Vice President, and of the number 
of votes for each, which list they shall sign and certify, and trans- 
mit sealed to the seat of the Government of the United States 
directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the 
Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Represen- 
tatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; 
the person ha\'ing the greatest number of votes for President shall 
be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole 
number of electors appointed; and if no person have such major- 
ity, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not ex- 
ceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House 
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the Presi- . 
dent. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by 
States, the representation from each State having one vote; a 
quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members 
from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall 
be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives 
shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall de- 
volve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, 
then the Vice President shall act as President, as in case of the 
death or other constitutional disability of the President. The per- 
son having the greatest number of votes as Vice President shall be 
the Vice President, if such number be a majority of the whole 
number of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, 
then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall 
choose the Vice President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist 
of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of 
the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person 
constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible 
to that of Vice President of the United States. 



xxii AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION 

ARTICLE XIII. 

1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly 
convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place sub- 
ject to their jurisdiction. 

2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV. 

1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United 
States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make 
or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities 
of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any 
person of life, liberty, or proj^erty, without due process of law, nor 
deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection 
of the laws. 

2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole 
number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. 
But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors 
for President and Vice President of the United States, Representa- 
tives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, 
or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the 
male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, 
and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except 
for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of repre- 
sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the 
number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of 
male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, 
or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil 
or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, 
having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as 
an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legis- 
lature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support 
the Constitution of the LTnited States, shall have engaged in insur* 
rection or rebellion against the same, or given aid and comfort to 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION xxiii 

the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thircb 
of each House, remove such disability. 

4. The vahdity of the pubhc debt of the United States, author- 
ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and 
bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall 
not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State 
shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insur- 
rection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the 
loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, 
and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV. 

1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be 
denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account 
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

2. The Congress shall have power to enforce the provisions of 
this article by appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XVI. 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes oa 
incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment 
among the several States, and without regard to any census or 
enumeration. 

ARTICLE XVII. 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six 
years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in 
each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of 
the most numerous branch of the State Legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State 
in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue 
writs of election to fill such vacancies : Provided, that the 
Legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof 
to make temporary appointments until the people fill the va- 
cancies by election as the Legislature may direct. 



xxiv AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION 

This Amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the 
election or term of any Senator chosen before it became valid 
as part of the Constittition. 

(This Amendment replaces the tirst paragraph of section 
three of Article I. of the Constitution, and so much of para- 
graph two of the same section as relates to the tillmg of 
vacancies.) 

RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

The Constitution was ratified by the thirteen original States in 
the following order: 

Delaware, December 7, 1787; Pennsylvania, December 12, 1787; 
New Jersey, December 18, 1787; Georgia, January 2, 1788; Con- 
necticut, January 9, 1788; Massachusetts, February 6, 1788; 
Maryland, April 28, 1788;, South Carolina, May 2,3, 1788; New 
Hampshire, June 21, 1788; Virginia, June 25, 1788; New York, 
July 26, 1788; North Carolina, November 21, 1789; Rhode Island, 
May 29, 1790. 

Amendments I. to X. were adopted in 1791; XL, 1798; 
XIL,1804; XIIL, 1865; XIV., 1868; XV., 1870; XVI., 1913; 
XVIL, 1913. 



Table of States and Territories. 



Name. 



Delaware . . 
Pennsylvania 
New Jersey . . 
Georgia . . . 
Connecticut . 
Massachusetts 
Maryland . . 



South Carolina . 
New Hampshire 
Virginia .... 
New York . . . 
North Carolina . 
Rhode Island . 



Vermont . 
Kentucky 

Tennessee 
Ohio . . . 
Louisiana 
Indiana . 
Mississippi 
Illinois . . 



Alabama . 
Maine . . 
Missouri . 
Arkansas . 
Michigan 
Florida. . 
Texas . . 



Iowa . . . 
Wisconsin 



Origin of Name. 



California .... 
Minnesota .... 

Oregon 

Kansas 

West Virginia . . 

Nevada 

Nebraska .... 

Colorado 

North Dakota . . 
South Dakota . . 

Montana 

Washington . . . 

Idaho 

Wyomiug .... 

Utah 

Oklahoma 

New Mexico .... 

Arizona 

District of Columbia 

Alaska 

Hawaii 



In honor of Lord Delaware . . 

Penn's woodland 

From the Island of Jersey . . 

In honor of George II 

Indian— long river 

Indian— at the great hill . . . 

In honor of Henrietta Maria, 
wife of Charles I 

In honor of Charles II 

From Hampshire, England . . 

In honor of Queen Elizabeth . 

In honor of the Duke of York 

In honor of Charles II 

Dutch— Rood (Red) Island, or, 
from the Isle of Rhodes . . . 

French— green mountains . . 

Indian — probably hunting 
land 

Indian— crooked river .... 

Indian— beautiful river .... 

In honor of Louis XIV. . . . 

From the word " Indian" . . 

Indian — great river 

From name of river and In- 
dian confederacy 

Indian— here we rest 

The main land 

Indian— muddy river 

Indian— after its main river . 

Indian— great sea 

Spanish— flowery 

Indian — name of a tribe or 
confederacy 

Indian- meaning doubtful . . 

Indian— probably gathering 
waters 

Spanish — from an old romance 

Indian — cloudy water .... 

Meaning doubtful 

Indian— meaning doubtful . . 

From Virginia 

Spanish — snowy mountains . 

Indian — shallow water . . . 

Spanish— red or ruddy . . . . 

Indian — the allies ...... 

Indian— the allies 

Spanish — monlana, a mountain 

In honor of Washington . . 

Indian — gem of the mountains 

Indian — broad plains 

Indian— mountain home . . . 

Indian— fine country .... 

From Mexico 

Meaning doubtful 

From Columbus 

Indian— great, or main land . 

Given by the Natives .... 



1787 
1787 
1787 
1788 
1788 
1788 

1788 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1789 

1790 
1791 

1792 
1796 
1803 
1812 
1816 
1817 

1818 
1819 
1820 
1821 
1836 
1837 
1845 

1845 
1846 

1848 
1850 
1858 
1859 
1861 
1863 
1864 
1867 
1876 
1889 
1889 
1880 
18S9 
1890 
1890 
1896 
1907 
1912 
1912 






2,050 
45,215 

7,815 
59,475 

4,990 

8,315 

12,210 
30,570 
9,305 
42,450 
49,170 
52,250 

1,250 
9,566 

40,400 
42,050 
41,060 
48,720 
36,350 
46,810 

56,650 
52,250 
33,040 
69,415 
53,850 
58,915 
58,680 

265,780 
56,025 

56,040 

1.58,360 
83,365 
96,030 
82,080 
24,780 

110,700 
77,510 

103,925 
70,795 
77,650 

146,080 
69,180 
84,800 
97,890 
84,970 
70,430 

122,.5.S0 

113,020 
70 

577,390 
6,740 



202,322 
7,665,111 
2,.537,167 
2,609,121 
1,114,756 
3,366,416 

1,295,346 
1,.515,400 
430,.572 
2,061,612 
9,113,279 
2,206,287 

542,610 
355,956 

2,289,905 
2,184,789 
4,767,121 
1,656,388 
2,700,876 
1,797,114 

5,6.38,591 
2,138,093 

742,371 
3,293,335 
1,574,449 
2,810,173 

751,139 

3,896,542 
2,224,771 

2,333,860 

2,377,549 

2,075,708 

672,765 

1,690,949 

1,221,11? 

81,875 

1,192,214 

799,024 

577,056 

583,888 

376,053 

1,141,990 

325,.594 

145,%5 

373,351 

1,657,155 

327,301 

201,354 

3:n,069 

64,356 

191,909 



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PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Key to the marks : fate, fat, father, fall, theme, yet, hgr, pine, pm, bone, n5t, 3rb 
moon, tune, biit, burr. 4, e, o have sounds sliorter thau a, e, 5. 



Algonquin al-gon'kin 

Amerigo Vespucci a-ma-re'-go ves-poot' 

chc 
Arkansas ar'kan-sa 
Ayllon il-yOn' 
Azores a-zOrz' 

Bahama ba-ha'ma 
Balboa bal-bO'a 

Cabeza de Vaca ca-ba'za da va'ka 
Cabot cab'ot 
Cabral cii-bral' 
Canonicus ca-nOn'I-cus 
Cape Breton cap bret'on 
Cartier car-tya' 
Champlain sham-plan' 
Coligny cO-len-ye' 
Coronado c6r-o-na'dO 

De Monts de mung' 
De Soto d5 sG'tO 

Dominique de Gourges do-ml-nek' de 
gOOrg' 

Frobisher frub'Ish-er 

Ferdinando Gorges fer-dC-nan'dO goKjes 

Hayti La'ti 

Hispaniola liis-pan-yO'Ia 

Huguenot Uu'ge-nut 

Iroquois h'u-qwa 

Joliet zho-.'ya' 



La Boque la-rOk' 
La Salle la-aal' 
leif llf 

Madeira ma-de'ra 

Magellan maj-e-lan' »r ma-jsl'an 

Marquette mar-ket' 

Massasoit mas-a-soit' 

Menendez ma-nen'dez 

Moquis mO'kes 

Muskoki miis-ko'ki 

Ifarvaez nir-va'eth 
Nina nia'ya 

Opechankano o-pe-chau'ka-no 

Orinoco O-rino'ko 

Palos pa'lOs 

Pocahontas po-ca-hon'tas 

Ponce de Leon pOn-tha da la-Ou' or pOat 

de le'ou 
Poutrincourt pOO-trang-kOOr' 
Powhatan pow-ba-tan' 
Pueblo pwa'blo 
Raleigh ra'Ie 
Ribault re-bo' 

San Salvador sSn sal'va-dor 
Santa Fe sau'-ta fa 

Vasco da Gama vas'ko da gii'ma 

WaldseemuUer valt'sa-mul-er 
Wampanoag wam'pa-nog 

Zuni zOO'nye 



INDEX 



Abolition movement, the, 435. 

Acadia, 39, 43; conquest of, 128. 

Acadians, expulsion of the, 140. 

Adams, John, 189, 213; Vice- 
President, 230; elected Presi- 
dent, 238; loses election, 242. 

Adams, John Quincy, elected 
President, 278, 308. 

Adams, Samuel, 173, 175, 176, 
178, 179, 228. 

Agriculture, development of, 441. 

Aguinaldo, Emilio, 407. 

Air ships, flight by, 440, 448. 

Alabama, sinking of the, 362. 

Alabama claims, the, 378. 

Alaska, purchase of, 376, 432; 
gold found in, 402; boundary of, 
412, 424; coal beds of, 424. 

Albany Convention, the, 138. 

Albemarle, Lord, 117. 

Alexander VI., Pope, 16. 

Algiers, war with, 266. 

Algonquin Indians, 25. 

Alien and Sedition Laws, 241. 

Allen, Ethan, 181. 

America discovered by North- 
men, 4; natives of, 12; naming 
of, 17, 18. 

American sailors, British seizure 
of, 237, 249, 252, 253. 

Americans, native, 19. 

Amusements, Colonial, 157. 

Anajsthesia, discovery of, 298, 446. 

Anarchists, Chicago, 392. 

Anderson, Major, 327; raises flag 
on Fort Sumter, 366. 

Andre, capture of, 205. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, 96, 104, 106. 

Annapolis, 40, 116. 

Animals on farms, value of, 441. 



Anti-federal party, the, 436. 

Anti-Masonic party, 281. 

Anti-slavery party, the, 288 ; prog- 
ress of, 308. 

Antietam, battle of, 346. 

Apprentice system, the, 62. 

Arizona, admission of, 423. 

Armies in the Civil War, 368. 

Arnold, Benedict, 185, 190; strat- 
egy of, 198; treason of, 204; in 
Virginia, 210. 

Arthur, Chester A., elected Vice- 
President, 386; succeeds as 
President, 388. 

Assembly, first in America, 64. 

Atlanta, capture of, 359. 

Atlantic telegraph, 321, 376. 

Automobile, the, 447. 

B 

Bacon's rebellion, 70. 

Bainbridge, Captain, 258. 

Balboa, exploit of, 18. 

Baltimore, Lord, 114; province of, 
116. 

Bancroft, George, 450. 

Banks, Federal Reserve, 426. 

Banks, General, expedition of, 361. 

Beauregard, General, 331. 

Bennington, battle of, 196. 

Berkeley, Governor, 68-71. 

Berkeley, Lord, 106. 

Bicycle, the, 447. 

Blaine, James G., 390. 

Bon Homme Richard, 204. 

Boone, Daniel, 216. 

Boston, settlement of, 79, SO; 
government of, 81; Quakers in,' 
82, 83; soldiers in, 171, 175, 
178; siege of, 181; evacuation 
of, 186, 219. 



INDEX 



Boston port, closing of, 174. 

Boston Massacre, the, 171. 

Bouquet, Colonel, 147. 

Boxer outbreak, the, 408. 

Braddock, General, 137; defeat 
of, 138. 

Bradford, Governor, 75, 76. 

Bragg, General, 340-341 ; at Chick- 
amauga, 353; at Missionary 
Ridge, 354. 

Brandy wine, battle of, 195. 

Brazil, claim to, 16; discovery of, 
17. 

Breckenridge, John C, elected 
Vice-President, 318, 323. 

Brooklyn bridge, the, 390. 

Brook, Preston S., 314. 

Brown, John, in Kansas, 314; 
at Harper's Ferry, 319, 320, 
436. 

Bryan, William J., Democratic 
candidate for President, 400, 
409, 420; Secretary of State, 
426. 

Bryant, William Cullen, 450. 

Buchanan, James, elected Presi- 
dent, 318, 324. 

Buell, General, 336, 338, 339. 

Buena Vista, battle of, 302. 

Bull Run, battle of, 331; second 
battle of, 345. 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 183, 184. 

Burgoyne, march of, 195, 196; 
peril of, 198; surrender of, 199. 

Burnside, General, at Fredericks- 
burg, 347. 

Burr, Aaron, Vice-President, 242; 
acts of, 248. 



Cabinet, the first, 232. 
Cabot, John, 15. 
Cabot, Sebastian, 16, 30, 3/ 
Cabral, Pedro, 17. 



Calhoun, John C, 254, 278, 279; 
elected Vice-President, 282 ; 
death of, 311. 

California and Japan, 428. 

Calvert, George, 114. 

Canada, England wins, 146; in- 
vasion of, 185, 255. 

Canonicus, 76. 

Carolina, naming of, 118. 

Carolinas, war in the, 206-210. 

Carpenters' Hall, 176. 

Carpet bag government, 374. 

Carteret, Sir George, 106. 

Cartier, Jacques, 38. 

Carver, John, 74, 75. 

Catholics, a refuge for, 113; how 
treated in Maryland, 116. 

Cavaliers, the, 68. 

Celebrations, anniversary, 396, 
412 422. 

Census of 1890, 396. 

Centennial Exposition, the, 380. 

Cervera, Admiral, 405, 406. 

Champlain founds Quebec, 40; 
fights with the Indians, 40. 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 348. 

Charles I., 67, 78, 79, 81, 95, 114. 

Charles II., 68, 69, 83, 87, 95, 96, 
117. 

Charleston, settling of, 118; cap- 
ture of, 206; evacuation of, 212; 
earthquake at, 392. 

Charter, the Puritan, 79; Rhode 
I.sland, 90; Connecticut, 95, 96, 
97; Massachusetts, 98; Penn- 
sylvania, 109; government, 164. 

Charter Oak, the, 97. 

Chase, Chief Justice, 375. 

Cherokee Indians, removal of, 287. 

Chesapeake, attack on frigate, 249; 
avenged, 253; taken by Shan- 
non, 259. 

Chicago, origin of, 287; fire at, 
379; anarchists, 392; growth of, 
433. 



INDEX 



Chicago Exposition, the, 396. 

Chickamauga, battle of, 353. 

Chinese exclusion, 391 . 

Chippewa, battle of, 262. 

Churches, Puritan, 160, 161. 

Civil Service reform, 388, 411. 

Civil War, cost of the, 367; results 
of the, 369. 

Civilization, medieval, 1. 

Claims of the nations, 47, 48; 
rival English and French, 131, 
132. 

Clarendon, Lord, 117. 

Clark, General, campaign of, 203. 

Clay, Henry, 254, 272, 278, 293, 
299, 310, 311. 

Clayborne, William, 115. 

Cleveland, Grover, elected Presi- 
dent, 390, 391; defeated in 
1888, 392; re-elected in 1902, 
397, 399. 

Chffdwellers, the, 28. 

Clinton, George, elected Vice- 
President, 248, 251. 

Clinton, Sir Henry, 202, 206. 

Cold Harbor, battle of, 356. 

Colonial travel, 438; WTiters, 448. 

Colonies, isolation of the, 55; con- 
federation of,' 94; union of, 189; 
state of in 1779, 205. 

Colony, Jamestown, 56. 

Columbus, Christopher, early life 
of, 7; belief of, 8, 13; aid sought 
by, 9; vessels of, 10; voyage of, 
10-12; honors to, 13; later voy- 
ages of, 14; ill treatment of, 14; 
death of, 15, 19. 

Commerce, early, 5, 6; state of, 
218, 270; interstate, 391. 

Concord, fight at, 180. 

Conestoga wagon, the, 151. 

Confederate States of America or- 
ganized, 323; readmitted to 
Union, 374, 377. 

Confedftration, Articles of, 222. 



Congress, Continental, 176, 177, 
182, 185; weakness of, 216, 220, 
222; Federal, 231; opposes the 
President, 373; extra session, 
426. 

Connecticut, settlement of, 91; 
constitution of, 92. 

Conservation of natural resources, 
424, 443. 

Constitution, the frigate, defeats 
the Guerriere, 257; defeats the 
Java, 258; last victory of, 260. 

Constitution, the United States, 
227, 228, 229; amendments to, 
232, 242, 372, 373, 377, 423. 

Constitutional Convention, the, 
225; work of, 227. 

Continental Congress, first, 176; 
second, 177, 182, 185, 224. 

Convention, the Constitutional, 
225, 227. 

Cooper, James Fenimore, 449. 

Corinth, battle of, 341. 

Cornwallis, General, 192; in South, 
206, 209, 210, 211; surrender of, 
212. 

Coronado's expedition, 34, 35. 

Correspondence, committees of, 
175. 

Cotton Exposition, the, 389; fields, 
the, 434; gin, the, 444. 

Country, early extent of, 430. 

Cowpens, battle of, 209. 

Crawford, William H., candidate 
for President, 278. 

Credit :Mobilier, the, 379. 

Creek Indians, defeat of, 264; re- 
moval of, 280. 

Cromwell, 116. 

Cuba, discovery of, 12; rebellion 
in, 399, 402; invasion of, 405; 
freeing of, 407; republic of, 412. 

Culpepper, Lord, 71. 

Curtis, George William, 450. 

Custer, General, death of, 382. 



INDEX 



Dakota IndiaDs, 25. 

Dale, Governor, 59, 60. 

Dana, Richard Henry, 451. 

Davenport, John, 94. 

Davis, Jefferson, President of 
Confederate States, 324, 327; 
capture of, 366. 

De Gourgues, Dominique, 36, 37. 

De \a Roque, 39. 

De Monts in Acadia, 39. 

De Soto, Fernando, 32-34, 75. 

Dearborn, General, 256. 

Debt, United States, 233, 36S. 

Decatur, Stephen, 244, 266. 

Declaration of Independence, com- 
mittee on, 189; passage of, 1S9. 

Delaware, government of, 113. 

Delaware, Lord, 59. 

Delaware River, naming of, 107. 

Demarcation, line of, 16, 17, 37. 

Democratic Party, 279, 437. 

Denys, John, 37. 

Detroit, surrender of, 255, 257. 

Dewey, Commodore, at Manila, 
404. 

Diaz, Bartholomew, 6. 

Dinwiddle, Governor, 134, 136. 

Disasters, weather, 426. 

Dorr Rebellion, the, 296. 

Drake, Joseph Rodman, 450. 

Draft riots, the, 368. 

Drake, voyages of, 44. 

Dred Scott case, the, 318, 319, 435. 

Dress, colonial, 154-156. 

Douglas, Stephen A., 313, 322, 
323. 

Duke of York takes New Amster- 
dam, 102, 104, 108, 109. 

Dunmore, Lord, 187. 

Dutch claim, the, 102. 

Dutch explorers, the, 46. 

Dutch, claim of the, 48, 54; in 
Connecticut, 91; in New Jersey, 
105; settlement at Lewes, Del- 



aware, 107; capture of New 
Sweden, 108. 
Dustin, Hannah, 127. 

E 

Early's raid on Waslaington, 358. 

Earth, ignorance about the, 1, 2; 
circumna^'igation of the, 18, 44. 

Earthquake, Charleston, 392; San 
Francisco, 415. 

Election of 1912, 424. 

Electric street railway, 439, 447; 
light, first use of, 446; develop- 
ments, 447. 

Emancipation of slaves pro- 
claimed, 347, 436. 

Embargo Act, the, 250. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 450. 

English claims in America, 48, 
102. 

Endicott, John, 78. 

Era of Good Feeling, the, 271, 279. 

Ericsson, Captain, 334. 

Erie Canal, the, 274, 275, 439. 

Essex, the frigate, defeats the 
Alert, 257; capture of, 259. 

Europe in 15th century, 5. 

Events, summary of, 29, 50, 124, 
148, 213, 267, 306, 325, 369, 409, 
429. 



Fair Oaks, battle of, 343. 

Faneuil Hall, 173. 

Farragut, Admiral, on the Missis- 
sippi, 340; at Mobile, 361. 

Federal party, the, 236, 254, 436. 

Ferdinand, King, 9. 

Field, Cyrus W., 321. 

Fillmore, Millard, elected Vice- 
President, 305, 307; succeeds as 
President, 311, 317. 

Fisheries, American, 16, 442. 

Five Nations, the, 121. 

Flag, the American, 198. 



INDEX 



Fletcher, Governor, 113. 
Florida, discovery of, 31; inva- 
sion of, 273; purchase of, 274, 

431. 
Food, Colonial, 154. 
Foote, Admiral, 337, 338. 
Forest reservations, 415, 442. 
Fort Duquesne, 136; capture of, 

143. 
Fort Fisher, capture of, 362. 
Forts Henry and Donelson, 336, 

337. 
Fort Lee, 191. 

Fort McHenry, attack on, 264. 
Fort Moultrie, defence of, 187. 
Fort Necessity, capture of, 137. 
Fort Sumter threatened, 324; 

bombarded, 326; surrenders, 

327. 
Fort Ticonderoga, 140; attack on, 

142; capture of, 181. 
Fort Washington, 191. 
Fort William Henry, 140; mas- 
sacre at, 142. 
Fountain of Youth, the, 30. 
France, support of, 195; treaty 

with, 200; aid from, 201; naval 

troubles with, 240. 
Francis I., 37. 
Franklin, battle of, 360. 
Franklin seeks colonial union, 138, 

189; in France, 200, 213; works 

of, 448. 
Fredericksburg, battle of, 347. 
Free Silver campaign, 400. 
Fremont, John C, in California, 

303, 317. 
French claims in America, 48. 
French colonies, English gains 

possession of, 146. 
French explorers, 37-39. 
French and Indian War, 131 
Frobisher's voyage, 44. 
Fugitive Slave law, the, 310. 
Fulton, Robert, 249. 
Fur trade, the, 39, 99, 442. 



Gadsden Purchase, the, 304, 431. 

Gage, General, 171, 175, 178. 

Gama, Vasco da, 6. 

Garfield, James A., elected Presi- 
dent, 386; assassination of, 388. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, 288. 

Gates, General, 199, 200; defeat 
of, 207. 

Geography in 15th century, 2; 
ignorance of, 7. 

George III., 166, 168, 172. 

Georgia, settlement of, 122; made 
a royal province, 123; laws of, 
123 

Germantown, battle of, 196. 

Gerry, Elbridge, Vice-President, 
266. 

Gettysburg, battle of, 349-351. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 44, 45. 

Goffe the regicide, 95. 

Gold discovered in California, 304; 
in Alaska, 402. 

Gold standard adopted, 385. 

Gorges, Ferdinando, 86. 

Gosnold, Bartholomew, 52. 

Government, forms of, 163, 164; 
character of American, 229. 

Grand Model government, 119. 

Grant, General U. S., 336, 337, 
338, 339; at Vicksburg, 352; at 
Chattanooga, 353; commander- 
in-chief, 355; marches on Rich- 
mond, 356; takes Richmond 
and captures Lee's army, 365; 
elected President, 377, 380. 

Gray, Captain, discovers the Col- 
umbia River, 246. 

Great Law, the. 111. 

Green Mountain Boys, the, 181. 

Greene, General, 208, 209, 210. 

Greenland, discover}' of, 3. 

Guam, ceded by Spain, 432. 

Guilford Court-house, battle of, 
209. 



INDEX 



H 



Hale, Edward Everett, 450. 

Halleck, Fitz-Greene, 450. 

Hamilton, Alexander, 226, 232, 
233, 234, 236; death of, 248. 

Hancock, John, 178, 179, 189. 

Harmar, General, 235. 

Harrison, Benjamin, elected Presi- 
dent, 392; inaugurated, 393, 
397. 

Harrison, General, defeats In- 
dians, 253; march of, 257; 
defeats the British, 261, 289; 
elected President, 291; dies, 
292. 

Harvard College founded, 85. 

Hawaii, annexation asked by, 399; 
annexation to United States, 
407, 432. 

Hawkins, Sir John, 44. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 449. 

Hayes, R. B., elected President, 
383, 384. 

Heights of Abraham, the, 144. 

Hennepin's exploration, 42. 

Henry, Patrick, 169, 228. 

Henry VII., 15, 16. 

Herkimer, General, 197. 

Hispaniola, discovery of, 12. 

Historians, 450. 

Hobson and the Merrimac, 405. 

Hood, General, at Atlanta, 359; 
at Nashville, 360. 

Hooker, General, at Chancellors- 
ville, 348; at Lookout Moun- 
tain, 354. 

House of Burgesses, 64. 

Houses, Colonial, 152, 153. 

Houston, General, 295. 

Howe, General, 186, 190, 195. 

Howe, Julia Ward, 450. 

Hudson's discoveries, 46, 47. 

Hudson River, discovery of the,54. 

Hudson-Fulton celebration, the, 
422. 



Huguenot colonists, the, 35; mas- 
sacre of, 36; settlers, 72, 118. 
Hull, General William, 255, 256. 
Hutchinson, Anne, 81, 89. 



Iceland, discovery of, 3, 4. 

Immigration into United States. 
299, 432. 

Independence, gaining of, 213. 

Independence Hall, 182, 226. 

Indians of Florida, 273. 

Indian War in New England, 85, 
86. 

Indian wars, 147, 235, 2.53, 286, 
381, 394. 

Indians, naming of, 13, 19; con- 
dition of, 20; customs of, 21; 
farming of, 22; domestic habits 
of, 23, 24; travel of, 24; tribes 
of, 25, 26; Florida, 31; New 
England, 76; Penn's treaty 
with, 112. 

Initiative and Referendum, 427. 

Intemperance, prevalence of, 156. 

Invention, progress of, 287, 444. 

Iron-clads in battle, the first, 333- 
335. 

Iroquois Indians, houses of, 22, 
25; Champlains' battle with, 40, 
100, 101, 126, 128, 133, 202. 

Irrigation in the West, 417. 

Irving, Washington, 449, 450. 

J 

Jackson, General, defeats the 
Creeks, 264; at New Orleans, 
265; in Florida, 273, 278; elected 
President, 282; his policy, 283; 
vetoes U. S. Bank charter, 285, 
289. 

Jackson, Thomas J. (See Stone- 
wall Jackson.) 

James I., 61. 



INDEX 



James River, 54. 

Jamestown, naming of, 54; settle- 
ment of, 55, 59, 66; burning of, 
70. 

Jamestown exposition, the, 413. 

Japan, 8; the opening of, 316, 317; 
and California, 427. 

Jasper, Sergeant, 187. 

Jay, John, 213; treaty of, 237. 

Jefferson, Thomas, writes Decla- 
ration, 189; heads Democratic 
party, 236; Vice-President, 238; 
President, 242; inauguration of, 
243; messages, 243; purchases 
Louisiana, 245, 246; re-elected, 
248. 

Johnson, Andrew, elected Vice- 
President, 366; succeeds as 
President, 371; seeks to reor- 
ganize States, 372; opposed by 
Congress, 373; impeachment of, 
375. 

Johnston, General A. S., 339. 

Johnston, General J. E., 343; at 
Atlanta, 358; in North Caro- 
lina, 364; .surrender of, 365. 

Johnstown flood, the, 394. 

Johet, 42. 

Jones, Captain Paul, 204. 

K 

Kansas, fighting in, 314; slavery 
forbidden in, 435. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, the, 313. 

Kearney, General, in New Mex- 
ico, 303. 

Kentucky, invasion of, 336, 341. 

Key, Francis S., 264, 450. 

Kidd, Captain, 105. 

Kieft, Governor, 101. 

King George's War, 129. 

King Philip's War, 85, 86. 

King William's War, 126. 

King's Mountain, battle of, 207. 

Knoxville, siege of, 354. 



La Rabida, convent of, 9. 

La Salle, explorations of, 42, 43. 

Lafayette, General, 195, 210; 
visits United States, 277. 

Lake Champlain, battle on, 190, 
263. 

Lake Erie, battle of, 260, 261. 

Lake George, battle of, 139. 

Lawrence, Captain, defeat and 
death of, 259. 

Laws and penalties, Colonial, 159, 
162. 

Lea, Charles Henry, 450. 

Lee, General Charles, 191, 202. 

Lee, General R. E., 344-347; at 
Chancellors ville, 348; at Gettys- 
burg, 349-351; opposes Grant, 
355-357; retreats from Rich- 
mond, 364; surrenders, 365. 

Lee, Henry, 209. 

Lee, Richard Henry, resolution of, 
198. 

Leisler's revolt, 104. 

Lewis and Clark expedition, the, 
247. 

Lexington, battle of, 179, 180. 

Libraries, 452. 

Lincoln, Abraham, 322; elected 
President, 323; policy of, 326; 
calls for troops, 328, 344; pro- 
claims emancipation, 347; re- 
elected, 366; assassination of, 
367. 

Light, electric, first use of, 446. 

Literature, periodical, 451. 

Locke, John, 119. 

London Company, the, 52, 53, 60, 
64, 72. 

Long Island, battle of, 190. 

Longfellow, Henrv Wadsworth, 
450. 

Longstreet, General, 354. 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 
354. 



INDEX 



Louisburg, fortress of, captured, 
129; restored, 130; recaptured, 
142. 

Louisiana, naming of, 42; pur- 
chase of, 245, 430; purchase 
exposition, 412. 

Lowell, James Russell, 450. 

Lundy's Lane, battle of, 262. 



M 



McClellan, General, 332; advance 
to Peninsula, 342; in Seven 
Days' fight, 344; at Antietam, 
346; removal of, 347. 

McDonough, Commodore, 263. 

McDowell, General, 331. 

McKinley, William, elected Presi- 
dent, 400; inaugurated, 401; re- 
election of, 408; assassination 
of, 409. 

McMaster, John Bach, 450. 

Machines, harvesting, 445; sew- 
ing, 445; printing, 446. 

Madison, James, elected Presi- 
dent, 251, 254. 

Magellan, exploit of, 18. 

Maine, sinking of battleship, 403. 

Maine, settlement in, 53, 87; pro- 
hibition in, 281. 

Mandan Indians, 22. 

Manhattan Island, the Dutch on, 
47, 54, 99, 102. 

Manila, capture of, 405. 

Manufactures, prohibition of, 167, 
218; development of, 442. 

Marco Polo, 5, 8. 

Marion, General, 207, 208, 210. 

Marquette explores the Missis- 
sippi, 42. 

Maryland, .settling of 113-116; in- 
vasion of, 346. 

Mason, John, 86. 

Mason and Dixon line, 116. 

Massachusetts Bay, colony of, 
78. 



Massacre, Indian, 66, 67, 126, 
128. 

Massasoit, 76, 85, 88. 

Maximilian, Emperor, 376. 

Mayflower, voyage of the, 73. 

Meade, General, 349-351. 

Mecklenburg resolution, the, 188. 

Memphis, capture of, 340. 

Menendez, Pedro, 35, 36. 

Merrimac, the iron-clad, 333; bat- 
tle with Monitor, 334; end of, 
335. 

Mexico, war with, 300-303; 
French in, 376 ; accessions from, 
431; revolution in, 427. 

Miles, General, 407. 

Military service, 159. 

Mining products, 443. 

Minuit, Peter, 99. 

Minute men, the, 178, 180. 

Missionaries, French, 41. 

Missionary Ridge, battle of, 354. 

Mississippi, discovery of the, 34; 
exploration of the, 42, 43; 
opening of the, 352. 

Missouri, fighting in, 339. 

Missouri Compromise, the, 272, 
273, 308, 313, 434. 

Monitor and Merrimac, battle of, 
334. 

Monmouth, battle of, 202. 

Montcalm, Marquis de, 141, 142, 
145. 

Montgomery, General, 185. 

Montreal, 38; capture of, 146, 185. 

Monroe, James, 245; elected Presi- 
dent, 266, 269, 276. 

Monroe Doctrine, the, 275, 276. 

Moqui Indians, 28. 

Morgan, Daniel, 208, 209. 

Mormons, the, 297; emigration of, 
298. 

Morris, Robert, 205, 216. 

Morse and the telegraph, 298. 

Motley, John Lathrop, 450. 

Mound building Indians, 27. 



INDEX 



Murfreesboro, battle of, 341. 
Muskoki Indians, 25. 

N 

Napoleon sells Louisiana, 245; 
duplicity of, 252. 

Narragansetts, the, 86, 92. 

Nashville, battle of, 360. 

Natural resources, conservation 
of, 418, 424. 

National road, 248, 274, 280. 

Narvaez, Panfilo de, 32. 

Navigation Acts, the, 167. 

Naval victories, 257, 258. 

Naval voyage round the world, 
419. 

Navigating the air, 427. 

Navy of United States, new, 
419. 

New Amsterdam, 99; taken by 
the English, 102. 

New England, naming of, 72; ed- 
ucation in, 85; United Colonies 
of, 94. 

New Hampshire, naming of, 87. 

New Jersey, 105-107. 

New Mexico, admission of, 423. 

New Netherland, 99. 

New Orleans, settlement of, 43; 
assault on, 264, 265; capture of, 
340; exposition at, 389. 

New Sweden, 107. 

New York, 103, 190, 212, 213, 219, 
433. 

Non-Intercourse Act, 250, 252. 

Norfolk, burning of, 187. 

North, Lord, 199, 212. 

North American, discovery of, 
15. 

North Carolina, 120. 

North and South, comparative 
strength of in Civil War, 329. 

Northmen, country of the, 2; ex- 
ploits of, 3; discovery of Amer- 
ica by, 4. 



North Pole, discovery of, 422. 
Northwest Territory, the, 224. 
Nova Scotia, 39. 
Novelists, 449. 
Nullification, 280, 283, 284. 



Oglethorpe, colony of, 122; war 
with Spaniards, 123. 

Ohio Company, the, 133. 

Oklahoma, opening of, 393; ad- 
mitted to Union, 416. 

Opechankano, 66. 

Oregon country, the, 294; boun- 
dary of, 295; accession, 431. 

Otis, James, 169. 



Pacific Ocean, discovery of, 18. 

Paine's "Common Sense," 188, 
448. 

Pakenham, General, defeat of, 
265. 

Palos, town of, 9; return of Colum- 
bus to, 13. 

Panama Canal, the, 413, 414. 

Panic of 1837, 290; of 1857, 320; 
of 1873, 380; of 1893, 398. 

Parties, early pohtical, 236; later, 
279, 281, 289, 315, 397. 

Parkman, Francis, 450. 

Patroons, the, 100, 297. 

Pea Ridge, battle of, 341. 

Peary discovers North Pole, 422. 

Pemberton, General, 352. 

Penn William, 106, 108; obtains 
a province, 109; great law of, 
110; treaty with Indians, 112. 

Pennsj'lvania, naming of, 109. 

Pension list, soldiers', 395. 

People, work of the, 217; dress of 
the, 219. 

Peoples' party, the, 397, 438. 

Pepperell, WiUiam, 130, 



INDEX 



Pequot Indians, the, 92; war with, 
93. 

Perry, Captain, on LaJce Erie, 
260. 

Petersburg, siege of, 357, 363. 

Philadelphia, founding of, 110, 
219; growth of, 433. 

Philadelphia, loss of frigate, 244. 

Philippine insurrection, 407; Isl- 
ands ceded by Spain, 432. 

Photograph, the, 445. 

Phonograph, the, 447. 

Pickens, General, 210. 

Pickett's charge, 351. 

Pierce, Franklin, elected Presi- 
dent, 312, 313. 

Pike, General, 256. 

Pilgrims, the, 72-77; landing of 
the, 74. 

Pickney, Charles, 239, 251. 

Pirates, the, 105. 

Pittsburg, strike riot at, 386. 

Pizarro, exploits of, 33. 

Plymouth, settlement of, 74; peo- 
ple of, 77. 

Plymouth Company, the, 52, 53, 
72, 74, 78. 

Pocahontas, 58; marriage of, 61. 

Poe, Edgar Allen, 449, 450. 

Poets, 450. 

Polk, General, 336-338. 

Polk, James K., elected President, 
299. 

Political liberty, 162. 

Ponce de Leon, 30. 

Pontiac's War, 147. 

Pope, General, 338, 345. 

Population, Colonial, 149; sources 
of, 432. 

Porter, Captain, 259. 

Porto Rico, ceded by Spain, 432. 

Portland exposition, the, 413. 

Portugal, area given to, 16; claim 
of to Brazil, 16, 17. 

Portuguese discoveries, 0. 

Portuguese King, treachery of, 9. 



Postage, Colonial, 151, 152; rates 

of, 440. 
Postal reforms, 312. 
Poutrincourt's settlement, 39. 
Powhatan, 57, 65. 
Prescott, Wilham Hickling, 450. 
President and Little Belt, the, 253. 
Princeton, battle of, 194. 
Prohibition of liquor selling, 281. 
Protection, the policy of, 251. 
Providence founded, 88, 90. 
Pueblo Indians, 20, 27, 28. 
Puritans, the, 78, 79; bigotry of 

the, 80, 87; persecute Quakers, 

82; hang witches, 84; churches 

of the, 160, 161. 
Putnam, Israel, 181. 



Quakers in Boston, 82, 83; a 

home for, 109. 
Quebec, founding of, 40; siege of, 

144; recapture of, 145; attack 

on, 185. 
Queen Anne's War, 128. 
Queen Isabella, 9. 



Railroad, transcontinental, 378, 

439, 444. 
Raleigh's colony, 45, 46. 
Rawdon, Lord, 210. 
Rebellion, colonies in, 178. 
Religious liberty, 87, 111, 115, 

118, 160. 
Republican party formed, 315, 

437. 
Revere's ride, Paul, 178, 179. 
Revolutionary writers, 448. 
Rhode Island, 87, 89. 
Ribault, Jean, 35, 36. 
Richmond, fall of, 364. 
Roanoke Island, 45, 53. 
Rolfe, John, 61. 



INDEX 



Roosevelt, Theodore, at Santiago, 
406; elected Vice-President, 408; 
succeeds as President, 411, 413, 
414; elected President, 415; 
aids peace, 415, 419, 424. 

Rosecrans, General, 353. 

Rotation in office, 283. 

Rough Riders, the, 406. 

Rubber, vulcanized, 445. 



Sachem, the Indian, 26. 

St. Augustine, 35, 36, 43, 50, 123. 

St. Clair, General, 235. 

St. Lawrence, Gulf of, 37, 38. 

St. Leger, march of, 197; defeat 

of, 198. 
St. Louis, exposition at, 412. 
St. Mary's, settlement at, 114, 116. 
Salem, settlement of, 78. 
Salem witchcraft, 83, 84. 
Samoa, acquisition in, 408. 
San Francisco, growth of, 304; 

earthquake at, 415. 
San Salvadore Island, 11; people 

of, 12. 
Santa Anna, General, 295, 302. 
Santiago, blockade of, 405; attack 

on, 406. 
Sargasso Sea, the, 10. 
Savannah, settlement of, 122; at- 
tack on, 206; evacuation of, 212. 
Schenectady, attack on, 127. 
Schofield, General, 360. 
Schuyler, General, 196, 199. 
Scott, General, at Niagara, 262; 

in Mexico, 300; takes Vera 

Cruz, 302; takes Citv of Mexico, 

303, 312, 332. 
Seattle exposition, 422. 
Secession of South Carolina and 

Gulf States, 323; of other slave 

States, 329, 436. 
Seward, Secretary, attack on, 367. 
Shaftcr, General,' 406. 



Shay's Rebellion, 221. 

Sheridan, General, defeats Early, 
358; at Five Forks, 364. 

Sherman, General, at Vicksburg, 
341; at Knoxville, 354; advance 
on Atlanta, 358-360; march 
through Georgia, 361; through 
the Carolinas, 363, 364. 

Shiloh, battle of, 339. 

Silver coinage, 385. 

Six Nations, the, 121. 

Slavery, beginning of, 63, 433; 
question of, 271; movement 
against, 288; system of, 307; 
opposition to, 308; political 
contest, 313; abolition of, 372, 
435; growth of, 433; objections 
to, 434. 

Slaves, emancipation of, 347; free- 
ing the northern, 434. 

Sloughter, Governor, 104. 

Smith, Captain John, 56-58, 72. 

Smith, Joseph, 297, 298. 

Socialist party, the, 438. 

South America, discovery of, 14. 

South Carolina, 120. 

South, reorganization of the, 377; 
expositions in, 389. 

Southern hospitality, 157, 158. 

Spain, claims of, 15, 48; area given 
to, 16; new territory of, 146; 
war with, 403; territory ceded 
by, 432. 

Spanish army, surrender of, 407. 

Spanish ships, sinking of, 404, 406. 

Specie payments resinned, 384. 

Spoils system, the, 283. 

Stage coach travel, 150, 151, 438. 

Stamp Act, the, 168-170. 

Stamp-act Congress, the, 176. 

Standard time adopted, 390. 

Standish, Captain Miles, 75-77. 

Stanton, Edwin M., 375. 

Star Spangled Banner, the, 264. 

Stark, John, 181; at Bennington, 
198. 



INDEX 



Starving time, the, 58. 

State banks, growth of, 280, 289. 

States, claims of the, 224. 

Steam Turbine, the, 447. 

Steamboat, invention of the, 249, 
439, 444. 

Stephens, Alexander H., Vice- 
President of Confederate States, 
324. 

Stevenson, Adlai E., elected Vice- 
President, 397. 

Stonewall Jackson, 331; in Shen- 
andoah Valley, 343; at second 
Bull Run, 345; at Harper's 
Ferry and Antietam, 346; death 
of, 349. 

Stony Point, capture of, 203. 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 435, 449. 

Strikes, railroad and coal, 386; 
Pullman car, 398; coal, 414. 

Stuyvesant, Peter, 101, 103. 

Sub-treasury system, the, 291. 

Sullivan, General, defeats the Iro- 
quois, 202. 

Sumner, Charles, assault on, 314. 

Sumter, General, 210. 

Swedish colony, the, 107. 



Taft, William H., elected Presi- 
dent, 420. 

Tariffs of 1816 and 1824, 270; of 
1828, 279; of 1832, 284; of 1890, 
395; of 1894, 398; of 1897, 401; 
of 1909, 422; of 1913, 426. 

Tarleton, Colonel, 207, 209. 

Taxation, British, 171. 

Taylor, Bayard, 450. 

Taylor, General, 300; at Buena 
Vista, 302; elected President, 
305, 307; death of, 311. 

Tea party, Boston, 174. 

Tea, the tax on, 172. 

Tecumseh, Chief, 253; death of, 
262. 



Telegraph, invention of the, 298, 
445; Atlantic, 321, 376, 446; 
wide use of, 440; wireless, 441, 
447. 

Telephone, the, 447. 

Temperance cause, the, 281. 

Tennessee, invasion of, 338. 

Territory gained from Mexico, 
303. 

Texas, insurrection in, 295; an- 
nexation of, 296, 308, 431. 

Thames, battle of the, 261. 

Thomas, General, at Chicka- 
mauga, 353; at Chattanooga, 
354; defeats Hood, 360. 

Thoreau, Henry D., 450. 

Tippecanoe, battle of, 253. 

Tobacco, culture of, 61. 

Tompkins, Daniel D., Vice-Presi- 
dent, 267. 

Tools, Indian, 23. 

Tories, 202; treatment of the, 
223. 

Toronto, capture of, 256. 

Travel, Colonial, 150, 151. 

Treaty of Peace, 146, 213, 266, 
303, 407, 415. 

Trent affair, the, 332. 

Trenton, battle of, 193, 

Tribes, Indian, 25, 26. 

Tripoli, war with, 244. 

Tuscarora Indians, war with the, 
121. 

Tyler, John, elected Vice-Presi- 
dent, 292; succeeds as Presi- 
dent, 292; vetoes U. S. Bank 
Bill, 293. 

U 

Underground Railroad, the, 311, 
435. 

United States, boundaries of, in 
1783, 215, 430; population of, 
215, 216; northern boundary, 
294; new area, 304, 408. 



INDEX 



United States Bank, 234, 266; 
veto of charter, 285; deposits 
removed, 286; bill vetoed by 
Tyler, 293. 

United States, the frigate, cap- 
tures the Macedonian, 258. 

Utah admitted to Union, 400. 



Vaca, Cabeza de, 32, 34. 

Van Buren, Martin, elected Presi- 
dent, 288, 305. 

Van Rensselaer, General, 256. 

Venezuela controversy, the, 390. 

Verrazano, voyage of, 37, 38. 

Vespucci, voyages of, 17; America 
named after, 18. 

Vicksburg, siege of, 352. 

Vinland, 4. 

Virginia, naming of, 45, 53; set- 
tlement in, 54; government of, 
63; a royal province, 65. 

W 

Wadsworth, Captain, 97. 

Waldseemiiller, 17. 

Wampanoags, the, 86. 

War, King WiUiam's, 126; Queen 
Anne's, 128; King George's, 129; 
Indian, 129; French and Indian, 
131; Pontiac's, 147; Revolution- 
ary, 180; with Great Britain, 
254; with Mexico, 300; Civil, 
328; with Spain, 403. 

Warren, General, 184. 

Washington, George, 133; seeks 
French forts, 135; first battle of, 
137, 139; takes Fort Duquesne, 
143; made commander-in-chief, 
182; takes command, 185, 186; 
retreat from New York, 191, 
192; at Trenton, 193, 194; at 
Valley Forge, 199; at Mon- 
mouth, 201; at Yorktown, 211; 
patriotism of, 221; elected Pres- 
ident, 230, 231; re-elected, 236; 
retires, 238; death of, 241. 



Washington, William, 208. 

Washington, city of, 243; British 
capture, 263. 

Washington Monument, the, 389. 

Wayne, General, 203; defeats In- 
dians, 235. 

Weapons, Indian, 23. 

Weather Bureau, the, 379; disas- 
ters, 428. 

Weaver, James B., 397. 

Webster, Daniel, 234, 283, 293; 
death of, 311. 

Webster, Noah, 450. 

West, settlement of the, 217. 

West Virginia, fighting in, 330. 

Weyler, General, 402. 

Whig party, the, 289, 437. 

Whiskey rebellion, the, 235. 

^\Tiittier, John Greenleaf, 450. 

Wigwams, Indian, 21. 

Wilderness, battle of the, 356. 

WiUiams, Roger, 81, 87-90, 92. 

Wilmot proviso, the, 308. 

Wilson, Woodrow, 425. 

Winthrop, John, 79, 91. 

Wolfe, General, 144, 145. 

Woman Suffrage States, 400, 424. 

Worcester, Joseph E., 450. 

World's Fairs, New York, 317; 
Philadelphia, 380; Chicago, 396; 
St. Louis, 412; San Francisco, 
428. 

Wright, Orville, 427; Wilbur, 427. 

Writers, Colonial, 448 ; Revolution- 
ary, 448; after the Civil War, 451. 

Writs of Assistance, 168. 

Wyoming, massacre of, 202. 

Y 

Yellov/ fever in South, 386. 
Yorktown, siege of, 211; surrender 

of, 212, 342. 
Young, Brigham, 298. 



ZoUicoffer, General, 336. 
Zuni Indians, 28. 



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